Lupine Publishers | Effects of Urban Farming Practices on Income Poverty Reduction in Dodoma Municipality, Tanzania

     Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Abstract

The main objective of this paper is to reveal the less known effects of urban farming practices on income poverty reduction in Dodoma Municipality, Tanzania. Collected primary and secondary data were analyzed both manually and by the use of SPSS software in which descriptive statistics and multiple responses presented by frequencies and cross tabulation employed. The findings show that the male raised higher income (61.7%) compared to women (38.3%) resulted from urban farming practices. It also shows that the majority of urban farmers use rain water compared to other sources of water. The capital availability found to be a problem (73.3%); has income below TZS 90,000 per month. The study also revealed that urban farmers use poor technology in farming activities. However, the study found that urban farmers practice agro-forestry which help to prevent land degradation and to enrich soil fertility as well as acting as wind breakers and shade provision. It was found that, though urban farming practices contribute to reduce income poverty in the study area but there are some factors which found to hinder the improvement of urban farming such as inadequate water supply, inefficiency laws and by laws and lack of improved seeds due to insufficient capital. These problems can be minimized through early seed provision from government and NGOs, use of irrigation technology rather than depending on rainfall, efficiency and effectiveness implementation of laws and by-laws and increase area for urban farming as population increase in Dodoma municipality due to concentration of colleges/universities and government activities.

Keywords: Urban farming; Urban famers; Income poverty; Land degradation

Introduction

Background information

farming is very extensive in urban areas in developing countries. Urban farming includes activities such as crop farming, vegetables, gardening, livestock keeping and poultry. It is estimated that; urban farming is practiced by about two thirds of urban workforce in developing countries [1]. Urban farming could contribute to mitigating the two most intractable problems facing third world cities which are poverty and waste management. Urban farming is one of several food security options for households. Similarly, it is one of several tools for making productive use of urban open spaces, treating urban waste, saving or generating income and employment and managing fresh water resources more effectively ibid, 2000.

The main motivation for urban farming is food production and/or higher income for personal consumption or sale ibid, 2000. Tanzania economy is still depending on agriculture as its main stay. In the year 2015, the contribution of the agriculture to the total GDP has been around 29%, and contributed 70% to the total employment and 55% of the country’s foreign currency [2]. Dodoma urban as one of the semi-arid areas in the country, through municipal councils’ authorities set strategies on encouraging farmers to put priority on production of drought resistant crops such as cassava, millet, sorghum and sunflowers in all areas with an annual rainfall between 400mm-600mm (Municipal Agricultural and Livestock Development Officer, 2016). In Miyuji ward there was more than 13.6 hectares which were used for growing grapes and other plants but now only 6.2 hectares are used for these activities (Dodoma Municipal Report, 2016). This shows that there is a decrease in urban farming practices in Miyuji ward more than half of the area which planned for agriculture.

Statement of the problem and significance of the study

Dodoma municipal council has 196,000 hectares suitable for cultivation but only 137,200(70%) hectares have been cultivated. Out of cultivated area, 11433(12%) hectares are used for urban farming and only 1509(1.1%) hectares are used by small farmers in Dodoma municipal council. Urban farming in Dodoma was mostly practiced by farmers in Miyuji, Msalato, Veyula, Mzakwe, Makutupora and other areas in Urban and Peri-Urban (Dodoma Municipal report, 2016). About 68% of the estimated 16,579 human population (2016) in Miyuji ward are relying on arable farming and livestock keeping.

The ward estimated to have 3832 hectares of arable land but only 1734.7 hectares are used for farming (Miyuji WEO office report, 2016).Despite of the hectares used for urban farming in Miyuji ward is being decreasing, yet the living standard of people, especially urban farmers, is very poor in the ward. Therefore, this study intended to examine the effects of urban farming practices on income poverty reduction in Dodoma municipality. The findings of the study will be useful in reducing income poverty to urban farmers by promoting urban farming through identified constraints and opportunities facing urban farming practices and formulating competent national policies which will be used in improving urban agriculture, and help to add literature related to urban farming.

Research objectives

General objective: The main objective of this research was to examine the effects of urban farming practices on income poverty reduction in Dodoma municipality.

Specific Objectives: Specifically, the study was intended to:

Examine factors affecting the performance of urban farming practices in the study area

Examine contribution of urban farming on income poverty reduction in the study area.

Examine the effects of urban farming on the environment in the study area.

Conceptual framework

The primary interested variable of this study is the dependent variables which is assessment of urban farming practices. The intermediate variables will be used in attempt to explain the dependent variables; these variables are amount of inputs, farmers’ income, Extension services and farming practice. Independent variables acting on and operating through intermediate variables which cause or determine or influence dependent variable to occur. The Figure 1 below shows the conceptual framework in a clear and simple way.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study.

Research Methodology

The study area

The researcher chooses Miyuji ward as the study area in Dodoma municipality due to the fact that, it is among the area which urban farming practices were given priority and there were planned land for such activities (Dodoma Municipal council report, 2016). Miyuji ward is located in urban area of Dodoma Municipality which lies between Latitude 60–6030/ South and longitude 3503/–36002/ East. Dodoma Municipality has an area of 421km2 of which 346km2 is arable land, 57.1km2 is residential and industrial area 17.9km2 occupied by natural resources and planted forests, mountains and non-arable land (Figure 2). According to projection basing on year 2012 population census, the current population of Dodoma municipality accounts to 446, 579 inhabitants, where by 240, 481 inhabitants live in urban areas and 206, 098 live in peripheral zone consisting of villages. The population size of Miyuji ward in 1988 was about 14,288; 2002 was about 15,779; and 2012 was about14, 965. This situation shows that the size of Miyuji was dramatically decline for about -0.47%/year from 2002 to 2012.

Figure 2: Map of the study area.

Data types and sources

Both primary and secondary data were used. Primary data such as income levels and farm sizes were collected in Miyuji ward by using household questionnaire. Secondary data such as number of extension workers, number of market centers were collected from street and ward executive offices by reading different reports and documents existent.

Sampling design

Sampling frame: A list of all households was used to pick respondents where a sample of 70 respondents was taken to represent the total population. Judgmental sampling was categorizing samples into different groups such as household with large arable land, household with small arable land, local leaders, extension workers (EW) and District Agricultural Officer (DAO)

Sampling unit: The sampling unit for this study was a household.

Sample size: The sampling size for this study was 100 (Table 1), which involves 90 households and key informants. Yamane (1967), provides a simplified formula for calculating sample size as follows:

n=N/1+N(e)²

Where: n=Sample size

N=Population size (Number of households in my case)

e=Level of Precision

In Miyuji ward: N=3684

e= 10% as recommended to social sciences

n=3684/1+3684(0.1)²

n= 97~100 households

Sampling procedure: Both probability and no-probability sampling techniques was used.

Probability sampling: The method was used to obtain the sample required by employing stratification where the population was divided into a number of homogenous sub-population and a sample helped the researcher to obtain 90 respondents.

Table 1: Respondent Sample Composition.

Non-probability sampling: The method was used to obtain the sample required by employing purposive sampling technique to select the 10 sample required to meet the objectives includes selection of AO (Agriculture Officers), MEOs (Mitaa Executive Officers), and WEO (Ward Executive Officer).

Data collection methods

Both primary and secondary data collection methods were used.

Primary data: Primary data was collected by using the following methods:

Interview: Structured questionnaire was used to enable face to face meeting in which the interviewer asked the interviewee questions and recorded responses. This method was used to obtain information from different respondents.

Observations: The method was used by visiting the selected areas to observe different things related to study such as how urban farming is practiced.

Focused group discussion: Focused group discussion enabled respondents to express and exchange their views on how they practice urban farming. This group involved Mtaa C/p, Extension officer, and few urban farmers. Group of not more than 25 people is recommended since they will be difficult to manage [3]. Fourteen respondents were invited to participate in focus group discussion for Miyuji ward as follow; Ward executive officer (1), Mtaa government chairpersons (3), Mtaa executive officer (3), Ward agriculture extension officer (1), and prominent urban farmers (6). Group discussions were conducted in a ward executive office where flip charts and marker pens were available after seeking permission from ward authorities. Questions were written on the flip chart, and the chairman who was elected by the participants guided the discussions by first reading the questions loudly for every member to hear and allowed for contributions through raising a hand. The group leader’s role also was to make sure that one person does not dominate and influence the discussion. The researcher took notes as well as probing questions when judged that the respondent’s statement was ambiguous. The information collected was used to supplement the household questionnaire.

Secondary data: Secondary data was gathered through.

Documentary review: The method was involving reading various published and unpublished materials related with the study. These materials include internet, books, Magazine, newspaper and Journals.

Data Processing, analysis and presentation

Data processing: Data was processed both manually and by computer using SPSS (Statistical package for social sciences) and MS-Excel where the exercise involved editing questionnaires, coding, clearing and verifying the entered data for easy interpretation.

Data Analysis: The data was analyzed manually and by the use of SPSS Version 11.5 software. Bivariate analysis technique was used in which the researcher examined the relationship between two variables for example farm size and Household income by the use of Cross- tabulation method.

Data presentation: The results from the research are presented by using charts, tables and graphs.

Limitations of the study

Time was not enough to cover the whole ward instead only 3 streets (mitaa) were represented.

Some respondent especially key informants were reluctant to give out the needed information as they thought that, they will be responsible when the wrong things/issues concerned with urban farming been recognized by the institution, however observation and literature review overcome this difficult.

Disturbances/bureaucracy of getting permission to conduct research in a study area.

Results and Discussion

General characteristics of the respondents

The study population comprised of males and females with different ages, family size and education background (Table 2). Of the household heads interviewed, 53.3% of the respondents were between 35-44 years old and 46.7% were between 25-34 years old. This was important because these age groups are the one who practice urban farming; understand the historical trend of their areas as well various indigenous technical knowledge. The study mitaa were found to have large household sizes. Results show that 55.6%have 6-10 persons per household and 44.4% have 1-5 persons. This is due to the behavior and culture of excluding family plan, of which results into a lot of dependents to feed and take care of Education background of the surveyed population is mainly primary education (90.0%), very few had college education (6.7%), and 3.3% had secondary education. Despite of having primary and secondary schools but the number joining secondary schools is small due to financial base of study population.

Table 2: General information on residents of study villages.

According to URT [4]; World Bank (2014); and Deloitte [5], one of the signs of both income and non-income poverty in the country is the low level of literacy and numeracy. The literacy level in Tanzania is now estimated to be 68%, down from 90% achieved in the 1980s. The gross enrolment rate for primary school pupils was 77.8% in 1996, down from 90% in 1980s. the literacy rate for youths and adults in the year 2014 was 76% and 73% for male and female youths respectively; and 75% and 61% for male and female adults respectively World Bank (2014).The Tanzanian government has managed to pay teachers’ salaries and allowances but number of teachers employed is not enough despite the efforts made to recruit more teachers due to agenda of having at least one secondary school in each ward and primary school in each village. With free tuition fees in public schools, the number of girls will be increased in schools as parents had have tendencies to choose between boys and girls to educate before the year 2016 because of cost sharing [6-8].

Factors affecting the performance of urban farming practices

Water availability: Availability of water is an important factor for urban farming practices. Miyuji ward is within semiarid region of Dodoma where enough rainfall for urban farming practices is a problem. The study mitaa in miyuji ward based on multiple responses (Table 3) found to have water mostly from rainfall (46.2%), 23.5% shallow wells, 19.3% underground water, 7.6% pipe water and 3.4% borehole. The results show that many urban farmers in Miyuji ward prefer rain harvesting as source of water, and due to low water table in Dodoma region, underground water also seems to be preferred although it require some fund for investment in it like pump machine, fuel etc.

Table 3: Main source of Water in Miyuji Ward.

Laws and by laws: The study mitaa found to have by laws that deal with urban farming. The results Table 4 shows that 77.7% of respondents in study mitaa understand and respect by laws present while only 22.3% claims that they do not know if there is by laws for making urban farming sustainable. By laws is very important for guiding urban farming practices. The following by laws which enforced in the study area based on multiple responses Table 5 shows that 45.3% of urban farmers responded to bylaw dealing with protection of soil erosion by restrict quarry activities, 36% protection of forests (cutting down of trees), 10.7% protection of water and 8% protection of illegal farm burning. The study made revealed that 80.4% of the urban farmers in the study area are aware with existing by-laws and its effectiveness. However, 19.6% of urban farmers complained that the existing by-laws are not enforced hence are not effective. It was established that 90.2% of urban farmers want any person acting against the existing by-laws to be penalized the rest 9.8% want any criminal to be jailed (Table 6).

Table 4: Presence of by Laws Dealing with Urban Farming.

Table 5: By laws guiding urban farming.

Table 6: Efficiency and Effectiveness of By-laws Guiding Urban Farming.

Table 7: Income level of Respondent per Month.

Capital Availability: Urban farming needs starting and operating capital so as to harvest considerable crops per acre and end products results from livestock and poultry. Capital helps to buy chemicals, fertilizers and other inputs helps in farming practices (Personal Observation). The study mitaa found to have different income groups in which 61.1% of study population has income per month above TZS 60,000 (Table 7). The results show that 38.9% of the urban farmers are living in absolute income poverty for both employed and unemployed and cannot even have power to buy any input for farming or self-sustenance. That majority with high income above TZS 60,000 can use the money earned to buy different equipment. During focus group discussion it was found that, urban farmers are not recognized in financial institutions for providing them loans unless they form a group of five persons or above and follow long procedures until given that loan. Also these urban farming practices are also done by employed people so as to raise household income, reduce income poverty and provide food to households’ members who are large in number. Also the study found that, urban farmers in Miyuji ward are practiced by both men and women from all income groups where by the majority of them were from below TZS 60,000 income earners as shown in Table 8. It was established that those urban farmers grow food crops for security and income generation as stipulated by Nugent [9,10] and URT [7]. In Miyuji ward women who engaged in urban agriculture are actively participate in urban garden for home production but also in food processing and marketing though in Miyuji ward women are involved in small scale production as explained much by Mouget [10] and URT [7].

Table 8: Income level of Respondent per Month interms of Sex.

Market availability: The study area found to have markets for their products from urban farming practices. The results show that 87.7% of study households said they have market for their farming products. This shows that in Miyuji ward market for urban farming products is not a serious problem what is required is to increase crops production. Crops produced includes millet, cassava, sorghum, sunflower, grapes, groundnuts, njugu, maize, vegetables, tomatoes and others; while livestock keeping includes cows, goats and pigs; and poultry which mostly includes hens (Table 9). Due to increase of higher learning institutions in Dodoma urban, it is likely the market to be extended and scarcity of this products resulted from urban farming practices increase and leads to poverty reduction to those people involved in these practices.

Table 9: Market availability of Crops, Livestock and Poultry.

Plot size and type of tools used for agriculture: The study area found to have scarcity of land for urban farming. The results show that 84.4% of study households own land and only 15.6% rent those lands for urban farming plots (Table 10). Also 100% of the study area own 1-4 acres of land and within this study population 95.6% claims that land is not enough and 85.6% propose average farmland required to be 5-9 acres and 14.4% propose to remain 1-4 hectares with maximum land size of 4 acres. Due to the use of hand hoe (low technology) in study area for agricultural activities, farmland shortage will continue to be a problem until the situation is reversed. Most urban farmers claim that, though urban agriculture is potentially viable and productive but not a panacea to solve the most severe problems of food security in Miyuji ward as explained also much by Nugent [9] and Mboganie [11].

Table 10: Market availability of Crops, Livestock and Poultry.

Use of fertilizers: The made in the study area found to have high fertilizers users. The results show that 63.3% use fertilizers and 36.7% are not using fertilizers (Table 11). This shows that disparities of income groups are the determinant for using fertilizers as those urban farmers with high income group are the one with ability to buy fertilizers. Also those practice either livestock keeping and agricultural or poultry keeping and agriculture can use manure type of fertilizer which is not costly [12]. Kinds of fertilizers used are shown in Table 12. The increase in fertilizer prices and reduction in credit have hit urban farmers harder because they are on poorer land which needs more of fertilizer which they are less able to afford. This has resulted in increasing cultivation of marginal areas with associated deforestation and erosion problems.

Table 11: Fertilizers Usage in Farming.

Table 12: Kind of Fertilizers Used.

Contribution of urban farming on income poverty reduction

Activities of urban farming: The study made found to have high number of household using rain fed farming as their main source of water for urban farming [13]. Results shows that, 56.7% use rain harvesting only 9.3% and 4.1% use pipe water and borehole respectively (Figure 3). This shows that those use pipe water from DUWASA are the one who cultivate leafy vegetables includes chinese, beans, sweet potatoes leaves, cassava leaves and non-leafy vegetable includes tomato, cucumber and carrot; and cultivate both vegetable and fruits includes orange, grapes and pawpaw. The common crops grown by both groups of different main water sources includes millet (23.6%), sunflower (23.2%), sorghum (21.4%), maize (14.5%), groundnuts (7.7%), cassava (5%), and njugu (4.5%)(Table 13). Also livestock kept includes cows (28.1%), goats (6.3%) and poultry (hens) (65.6%) (Table 14). These crops grown and livestock kept are both for subsistence use in families and business to increase income of household whereby keeping hens found to be done by large number of households in study area. The study found that, men in Miyuji ward dominate commercial urban food production such as sunflower and groundnuts and selling of livestock kept. Most of women earn/control the money from milk and eggs selling. The study also revealed that children were involved in urban farming activities through weeding and watering. Involving children is contrary to child labour rights [14].

Figure 3: Source of Water in Miyuji Ward.

Table 13: Crops grown kept in Miyuji Ward.

Table 14: Livestock kept in Miyuji Ward.

Table 15: Crops production per acre.

Amount produced and sold and price of products: The study population found to have medium production of urban farming products [15]. Crops production per acre as shown in Table 15 below shows that, 35.1% produce 2-4 bags per acre of sunflower, 21.6% below 2bags of sorghum, 25.8% produce 4-6 bags of millet per acre, 13.4% produce 6-8 bags per acre of Maize, Njugu 15.5% produce below 2bags per acre, 11.3% produce 2-4bags of cassava per acre, and 12.4% produce Groundnuts below 2bags per acre. Animal production based on end products shows (Figure 4) that, 43.3% produce hens’ eggs and 18.6% produce milk During focus group discussion, it was shown that, urban farmers of Miyuji ward use products obtained for home use and business whereby most of them sell all products in order to get income for covering some expenses for example paying fees for their children, health issues, water bills and all other household necessities needed rather than priotised using crops produced to solve the problem of food insecurity. Market availability for products produced is not a problem in a study area [16]. Results in Figure 4 shows that 88% of the respondents in study area have market for their products and only 12% have no market. This shows that as population increase in Dodoma urban then demands for urban farming products increases, therefore production should be increased in order sustain the available population.

Figure 4: Animal end product produced.

When the researcher interviewed households, it was found that, price of crops products varies depending on demand especially during parliamentary meetings and higher learning students’ institutions studying semester’s periods. Animal products includes milk and eggs found to have constant price of TZS 1000 per liter and TZS 500 per egg while the price of cow and chicken are subject to change ranging from TZS 300.000 to 600,000 depending on size and specie of cow, while chicken range from TZS7000 to 15,000. In order this farming practices to be improved so as to increase production, the study households suggested as shown in Table 16. 30.1% said if they can be supplied by early seeds provision, adopt irrigation technology (28%), establishment of market nearby, increase number of extension officers (8.3%), separating agriculture and livestock area (6.2%), education and training provision to urban farmers on good method of agriculture (3.2%) and Subsides provided on fertilizers and pesticides to reach urban farmers (3.2%) tgether with financial support from Banks and Credit agencies [17], altogether can improve urban farming practices and more urban dwellers can engage themselves as explained much by Nelson, 1996.

Table 16: Suggestion given by urban farmers on the improvement of their farming practices.

Effects of urban farming on the environment

Chemicals used and cow dung disposal: The study found that urban farmers have low usage of chemicals in farming practices. Results shows that, 71.7% do not use any insecticides or pesticides in crops production and only 28.3% use insecticides and pesticides for the crops production (Figure 5). This shows that farming products produced in Miyuji ward have little concentration of chemicals which can have negative effect to human being. However, during interview with ward agricultural officer, it was shown that sometimes aerial sprays to kill “koleakolea” have been done in the area few years ago. Also during focus group discussion, it was revealed that cow dung disposal in farm plots make them to increase nutrients as a results production per acre increase compared to plots without any fertilizer. Additionally, it was found that cow dung can be used for production of bio-gas which is alternative source of energy rather than concentrating using fuel wood and charcoal as the main source of energy in study area.

Figure 5: Market availability for crops and animals products.

Figure 6: Insecticides/Pesticides usage in farms.

Figure 7: Land Degradation Resulted From Urban Farming Practices.

The study area found to have land degradation resulted from urban farming practices. Results shows that 93.3% of study households experienced land degradation resulted from urban farming practices and only 6.7% do not experience it. This shows that poor farming practices present in the area, so the duty of extension officers to reverse the situation will be appreciated (Figure 6). Land degradation is among of the effects on urban farming which experienced in the study area [18]. Types of land degradation experienced are shown in Table 17. Also it shows that this land degradation decreasing. Results from observation and household questionnaire shows that, 92.9% of study households have seen this degradation as decreasing and only 7.1% responding to increasing land degradation (Figure 7). This shows that presence of extension officers helps to conservation of environment by teaching community proper way of practicing urban faming. Major reasons for increasing and decreasing land degradation are shown in Table 18.

Table 17: Types of Land Degradation experienced in study area.

Table 18: Major Reasons for Increasing and Decreasing Land degradation.

Figure 8: Status of Land Degradation.

Figure 9: Tree planting.

Table 19: Purpose of growing trees in study area.

Planting trees: Planting trees is a positive strategy towards environmental in many areas of the world, and collaborative measures whereby, all community together practice this tree planting for the benefit of extracting carbon dioxide gas concentration resulted from daily productive activities Smit and Nasr, 1997. The study found that 93% of respondents in study area planted trees and only 7% did not plant trees (Figures 8 & 9). This shows that indigenous technical knowledge and NGOs play a good role in providing conservation education and importance of growing trees for the benefit of urban farming practices. The study population found to have behavior of planting trees for shades rather than combating fuel wood shortage. Results shows that 27.4% of planted trees are meant for shades, 26.7% for soil fertility maintenance, 15.6% for fuel wood and building materials respectively, and 14.8% for wind breakers (Table 19). Also the study revealed that in Miyuji ward have high populations who plant few trees per year. Results in Table 20 shows that 40% of respondents planted two trees per year and 60% plant more than two trees per year. This implies that, as times goes on and those trees planted being protected then in few years to come Miyuji ward can have large amount of tree.

Table 20: Number of Trees Planted Per Year.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Conclusion

Generally, urban farming practices contribute much to reduce income poverty in Dodoma Municipal especially in Miyuji ward. Based on analyzed data most of respondents are in a position of improving their living standard and getting their basic human needs due to involvement in urban farming practices though there are some factors which observed to hinder urban farming practices in the study area such as inadequate water, inefficiency laws and by laws which govern urban farming practices, lack of enough capital, small plot size, low technology and lack of nearby market to sell their crops and livestock products.

Recommendations

Urban farming practices is a new employment opportunity to urban dwellers as the study shows it increase income to households, fight food insecurity, provide room for environmental conservation through planting trees and adopting proper way of farming and other benefits associated with urban farming. In order this sector to be improved and increase production, the following issues found in the study area must be taken into account:

Early seed provision from the government and non-government organization can help to improve urban farming practices in Miyuji ward. This can be facilitated by ward agricultural extension officer.

Improvements of irrigation method can help to improve urban farming practices rather than depends much on tap and rain harvest water. Urban farmers, extension officers and government are in position to incorporate in order to reach consensus.

Regular education to the urban farmers from urban farmers’ expertise can help to increase the crop and livestock yield hence poverty reduction to the urban farmers.

The village government must ensure implementation of existing laws and by laws governing urban farming practices which help to conserve the environment so as to be conducive for practicing urban farming.

Town planners should plan an alternative area for urban farming practices to suit the urban farmers as their areas are too small as compared to the size of their family.

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Lupine Publishers | Resistance of Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) Produced from Rubberwood, Radiata Pine and Larch Against Subterranean Termites And White Rot Fungi

 Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Abstract

Laminated veneer lumbers (LVLs) were fabricated using rubber wood, radiate pine and larch wood. Solid rubber wood was used to serve as control for comparison purpose. All of the wood samples were exposed to subterranean termites and white rot fungi for durability evaluation. The results showed that rubber wood LVL had the highest resistance against both deterioration agents in comparison to control, confirming that the resistance of non-durable wood species could be improved by converting them into LVL.

Keywords: Termites resistance; Fungal resistance; Low density wood; Hardwood; Softwood

Abbrevations: LVL: Laminated Veneer Lumber; PF: Phenol Formaldehyde; AWPA: American Wood Preserves Association; ANOVA: Analysis of Variance; SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.

Introduction

Improper forest management and the rapid population increment have induced the continuous growing of timber demand and subsequently led to timber resources depletion around the world. The supply of high quality raw timbers with large diameter is declining accompanied by increasing timber price due to the aforementioned matter. Rising timber costs had shifted the manufacturer’s attention from solid sawn wood to engineered wood products, for example, laminated veneer lumber (LVL). In order to attain better compression and higher strength of LVL products, wood with lower range of densities are often being used. In US, LVL has been typically constructed from southern pines, western softwoods and yellow poplar [1], while in the case of Malaysia, rubber wood are the most common used materials owing to its readily availability. Never the less, one of the disadvantages of these low density wood species is their poor durability against deterioration agents such as termites and fungi. Therefore, better durability could be anticipated by converting these low density wood into LVL bonded by phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin as PF resin has long been recognized as an effective way to enhance the wood properties [2,3]. To the author’s knowledge, there is little or no information regarding the resistance of LVLs fabricated form low density hardwood and softwoods such as rubber wood (Hevea brasiliensis), radiata pine (Pinus radiata) and larch (Larix spp.) against both subterranean termites ((Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren)) and white rot fungi (Pycnoporus sanguineus). Therefore, this study evaluates and compares the biological resistance of LVLs fabricated from rubber wood, radiate pine and larch with that of solid rubber wood.

Materials and Methods

Nine-ply laminated veneer lumber (LVL) having a dimension of 200 mm longx50mm widthx10mm thick was supplied by Wood Research Institute, Kyoto. These LVLs were fabricated from rubber wood, radiata pine and larch wood using phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin as binder. Solid rubber wood was used as control in this study for comparison purpose. For resistance tests, subterranean termites (Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren) and white rot fungi (Pycnoporus sanguineus) were used. The termites were collected from Bukit Expo, University Putra Malaysia using pine blocks as baits. A total of 40 samples, five samples for each material used, were assigned to both resistance tests (4 materials (solid rubber wood, rubber wood LVL, radiate pine LVL and larch LVL) x2 resistance tests x5 replicates). LVLs and solid rubber wood were cut into dimensions of 20x20x10mm prior to the tests. Termite tests were conducted in accordance to American Wood Preserves’ Association (AWPA) Standard E1-13. 200g of sterilized sand mixed with required amount of distilled water were added into a culture bottle. Each test block was exposed to approximately 1±0.05g of termites comprising 10% soldiers and 90% workers. The cultured bottles were then wrapped with black paper and kept at the room temperature (25±2 ̊C) for 4 weeks. The cultured bottles were examined daily to record the mortality rate of the termites. After 4 weeks of exposure to termites, the test blocks were removed and conditioned until they reached constant weight. The mass of the blocks was weighed and the percentage of weight loss was then calculated using Equation (1).

Weight loss(%)=((W_a-W_b)/W_a)x100 (1)

Where W_a = conditioned weight of the test block before exposure (g) and Wb = conditioned weight of the test block after exposure (g).

The mortality of termites was calculated using the following equation:

Mortality (%) = (Number of dead termites / initial number of termites) x 100 (2)

Decay resistance test against white rot fungi was carried out according to American Wood Preserves’ Association (AWPA) Standard E10-12. LVLs and solid rubber wood were cut into dimensions of 20x20x10mm prior to the test. The cut test blocks were then sterilized in an autoclave at 121 °C for 1 min. Next, the sterilized test blocks were placed on mycelium covered strips and kept in capped culture bottles. The culture bottles were incubated at temperature of 25±3 °C for 12 weeks. At the end of the incubation period, the test blocks were carefully removed and the mycelium was brushed off. The blocks were then conditioned in a conditioning room and weighed once the blocks reached constant mass. The extent of the fungal attack will be expressed as percentage of weight loss using Equation (1). The effects of materials used on termites and fungi resistance were analyzed using statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) procedure for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95 % confident level (P≤0.05). The significant level of the mean values was further analyzed using Duncan’s multiple range tests.

Table 1: Termites’ mortality rate and mean weight losses of samples against both termites and white rot fungi.

Means followed by same letters in the same column are not significantly different at P≤0.05; ±=SD

Results and Discussion

The average weight loss of sample blocks caused by both termites and white rot fungi are summarized in Table 1. The mortality rate of the termites at the end of the test is also listed in the same table. From Table 1, one can see that the larch LVL had the highest weight loss against termites (81.8%), followed by radiate pine LVL (39.6%) and rubber wood LVL (6.1%), while 64.8% of weight loss was recorded in solid rubber wood. It was also observed that all termites (100%) in the culture bottles that contained rubber wood LVL and radiate pine LVL died after 4 weeks of exposure. 48% and 50% mortality rates were observed in the culture bottes that contained solid rubber wood and larch LVL, respectively, suggesting lower resistance against termite attack. Larch LVL had lost higher weight even compared to solid rubber wood, implying that larch wood is more preferred by termites and even in the presence of PF resin, it could still cause severe damage to the wood. This phenomenon could be explained by its lighter density among the materials that used in this study. Larch wood that used in this study has a density of 530 kg/m3, while rubber wood and radiate pine have density of 640kg/m3 and 600kg/m3, respectively. Logically, it is much easier for the termites to nibble softer wood like larch in comparison with harder radiate pine and rubber wood. Rubber wood LVL showed the highest resistant among the three wood species used and the reason could be due to the fact that rubber wood itself contains relatively high amount of formaldehyde content [4]. It is interesting to note that the resistance to termites was prominently improved by converting solid rubber wood to LVL. The fact that rubber wood LVL is more resistance to termites could be explained by the presence of PF resin in the glue line, which imparted some preservative properties to the LVL. Poisonous nature of the phenol and the toxicity of the free formaldehyde released during the exposure period might have caused the death of the termites [5].

According to Table 1, surprisingly, LVL made from radiate pine and larch wood had higher weight loss against white rot fungi (6.8% and 6.0%, respectively) in comparison to rubber wood LVL and solid rubber wood. These findings were in disagreement with Nilsson [6] who suggested that the higher susceptibility of hardwoods is due to their lower lignin content compared to that of softwoods. On the other hand, rubber wood LVL revealed better performance against white rot fungi compared to solid rubber wood, with weight losses of 0.7% and 3.9%, respectively. Similar to the findings against termites, the presence of PF resin might have some influence on the fungi preference. The cured PF resin is very hard and thus made it more difficult for the white rot fungi to grow on the edges of the LVL. Therefore, only the tangential surface was fully colonized by the fungi. Whilst in the solid rubber wood all of the four surfaces were colonized by the fungi resulting in more severe degradation.

Conclusion

Based on the weight loss and mortality rate, rubber wood LVL is the most resistant toward termites among the three species studied in the present work, followed by radiate pine and larch. By converting solid rubber wood to rubber wood LVL, the resistance against termites had improved approximately 10-folds owing to the presence of PF resin glue line which might have toxic effect against termites. On the other hand, both radiate pine and larch LVL are more susceptible to white rot fungi compared to that of rubber wood LVL. In the comparison between solid rubber wood and rubber wood LVL, once again, rubber wood LVL displayed better resistance against white rot fungi. Rubber wood exhibited a superior resistance ability might be due to several factors. One of the probable theories is that the rubber wood contains a substantial amount of formaldehyde which may provide a better resistance towards both termites and white rot fungi. Further study in quantify the amount of formaldehyde in all the wood species used in the study is therefore needed to be conducted to verified the above statement.

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Lupine Publishers | Variant of Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy with Co-Existent Severe Coronary Artery Disease – A Case Report

Lupine Publishers | Advancements in Cardiovascular Research

Abstract

TakotSubo Cardio Myopathy (TSCM) is a reversible form of cardiomyopathy characterized by transient left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction. Clinically often mimics acute myocardial infarction (AMI) with chest pain or breathlessness with electrocardiographic, cardiac marker(s) and LV wall motion abnormalities. In a third of patients, significant emotional or physical stress precedes the presentation. Often, these patients have normal epicardial coronaries or non-flow obstructive coronary disease. In most patients, LV function shows complete recovery within weeks with favorable outcomes. We report a unique case of TSCM following sudden emotional stress with typical transient apical ballooning; nevertheless, with severe co-existent triple vessel coronary artery disease and complete recovery of cardiac function on medical management.

Keywords: Tako-Tsubo Cardiomyopathy; Apical Ballooning; Coronary Artery Disease

Case Presentation

73 year old hypertensive female admitted with sudden onset intermittent chest pains and shortness of breath (< 24 hours after the death of her granddaughters in a road traffic accident). There were no other significant past medical history of note and she never smoked. On arrival, she was tachycardic (heart rate 102) in sinus rhythm, normotensive and clinical examination was unremarkable. Her initial ECG (Figure 1) demonstrated sinus tachycardia with deep T wave inversions in both precordial and limb leads. Her bloods revealed high sensitivity Troponin-T of 395ng/L [normal reference range <15ng/L]. Her bedside echocardiogram revealed typical pattern of “apical ballooning” with severe hypokinesis in the anterior, lateral, septal and inferior walls of the left ventricle, sparing the basal walls. Her left ventricular systolic function was moderately impaired with an ejection fraction (EF) of 40% (Figure 2). Both her clinical presentation and echocardiographic appearances were highly suggestive of “Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy”. Nevertheless, she was conventionally treated for presumed “Non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI)” at the initial stages [1].

Figure 1: ECG on admission showing sinus rhythm with deep T-wave inversions in both precordial and limb leads.

Figure 2: 2-D Transthoracic echocardiogram (apical view) revealing typical apical ballooning with akinetic apical wall and preserved basal contraction of left ventricle.

Interestingly, her inpatient coronary angiogram revealed severe triple vessel coronary artery disease (CAD). This was evident by the presence of mild disease in the left main stem, severe mid vessel calcific LAD lesion, severe obtuse marginal (OM1) disease (Figure 3) and chronic total occlusion of her mid right coronary artery (Figures 4a & 4b). However, her distal RCA appears well collateralized from contralateral LC system. The left ventriculogram revealed moderately impaired systolic function with moderate mid to apical anterior and inferior wall hypokinesis, sparing the basal segments consistent with “apical ballooning”. Figure 5, LV in systole] Given her clinical presentation (albeit coronary artery disease and LV dysfunction), multidisciplinary consensus favored medical management as NSTEMI. Expectedly patient agreed and preferred this option too. She was discharged on appropriate treatment and secondary prevention. Interestingly, her Cardiac MRI (CMR) scan at 1-month post discharge showed near normalization of LV function with calculated EF 50% with no evidence of infarction or myocardial oedema or fibrosis. Thence, improvement in her LV function with no evidence of infarction on CMR confirms the diagnosis of Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy, despite her significant CAD. At 12-month follow up, patient still remains stable and symptom free; therefore, with plans to consider surgical coronary revascularization, if worsening symptoms on top of medical therapy [2,3].

Figure 3: Coronary angiogram of left system revealing severe mid calcific left anterior descending artery disease with contralateral collaterals to distal right coronary artery.

Figure 4a: Coronary angiogram of left system showing severe branch vessel disease in obtuse marginal branch of left circumflex artery.

Figure 4b: Angiogram of right coronary artery showing chronic total occlusion at the proximal segment.

Figure 5: Left ventriculogram at systole confirming the typical pattern of “apical ballooning” sparring the basal anterior and inferior segments.

Discussion

With her established macrovascular risk factors for CAD (hypertension and age) and clinical presentation together with abnormalities in ECG, cardiac enzymes and echocardiogram, the working differential diagnoses were:

a. Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) i.e., Non-ST elevation myocardial infarction

b. TakotSubo Cardiomyopathy or transient apical ballooning syndrome or stress induced cardiomyopathy or broken heart syndrome.

Conventional electrocardiogram (ECG) still remains a costeffective important tool in the assessment of CAD. Nevertheless, its low sensitivity (<50%) and specificity (<80%) in predicting coronary disease still remains a major limitation. Clinicians mostly rely on surface ECGs to localize ischaemic myocardial territory (highly specific) prior to coronary revascularization of the culprit vessel(s) routinely in ACS patients. Clinically TSCM (typical LV appearance of Japanese “Octopus trap” with apical ballooning) often mimics AMI (chest pains, elevated cardiac enzymes and ECG changes) and is characterized by a transient left ventricular dysfunction. Though its incidence and prevalence doesn’t appear to have vastly changed over the years; however clinicians are more comfortable in diagnosing TSCM with better access to imaging (echocardiogram, Cardiac MRI) and invasive investigations (coronary angiogram) nowadays. The Revised Mayo Clinic Criteria suggested the presence of the following to confirm the diagnosis of TSCM [4,5].

a. Transient hypokinesis, akinesis or dyskinesis of the left ventricular mid segments with or without apical involvement– distinctively the extent of regional wall motion abnormalities observed will be beyond the distribution of single epicardial coronary vessel and with often a stressful trigger (but not always present).

b. Absence of obstructive coronary artery disease or angiographic evidence of plaque rupture

c. New electrocardiographic abnormalities or modest elevation in cardiac Troponin

d. Absence of pheochromocytoma and myocarditis.

However, concomitant coronary artery disease (CAD) has been reported in 10 – 29% of patients who have been diagnosed with TSCM. In the International Takotsubo Registry (n=1750) 15.3% had some degree of coronary artery disease, although the extent of coronary artery involvement was not discussed in TSCM patients. The new Inter TAK diagnostic criteria highlight the clinical entity that TSCM can exist with concomitant CAD too (Table 1). Our patient meets with these diagnostic criteria for “Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy” together confirming that there was no evidence of infarction in her Cardiac MRI (no sub-endocardial late gadolinium enhancement in her LV or microvascular oedema) as well as complete recovery of her LV function rather than the initially presumed diagnosis of ACS [6].

Table 1: International Takotsubo Diagnostic Criteria (8).

The pathophysiology for the condition is not well completely understood yet; nonetheless, stress related acute catecholaminergic surge, multi-vessel epicardial coronary spasm, micro-vascular dysfunction, abnormal fatty acid metabolism, myocardial stunning, micro-infarction, direct catecholamine toxicity to myocytes and possible reperfusion injury were proposed as possible mechanisms. On top of the typical transient apical ballooning, other atypical variants including inverted or reversed, mid ventricular or localized have been reported in the literature. In the majority of cases of suspected TSCM, it is appropriate to perform coronary angiography to exclude an acute coronary syndrome given the overlap of symptoms. Also, there is little evidence to support the clinicians in the management of TSCM with co-existent coronary artery disease as highlighted in this case and the clinical dilemma encountered. Therefore, we believe long term follow-up would be really helpful in understanding the disease as well as their management and prognosis for these TSCM patients [7,8].

Conclusion

We report an unusual case of Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy with co-existent severe triple vessel coronary artery disease. This case illustrates the importance of good history taking and the judicious use of diagnostic imaging to arrive at a prompt diagnosis and appropriate management. With limited evidence in literature to support clinicians as how best to manage these patients with severe coronary artery disease with Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy, we highlight the need for International registries with long term follow-ups.

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Lupine Publishers | Peer Review of Statistics in Surgical Research: Identify The X-Factor or Toss a Coin!

Lupine Publishers | Advancements in Cardiovascular Research

Opinion

Professor Peter Bacchetti’s excellent article [1], highlighting “the other problem of peer review of finding flaws that are not really there based on unfounded statistical criticism, and its demoralizing effect on authors”. I wish to add some thoughts to the debated issues. Professor David Horrobin’s original classics on the subject [2,3]. have not yet been surpassed. It was updated recently [4] and prompted some contributory thoughts [5]. Having enough experience as author of reject articles and some as peer reviewer, I find the most devastating effect to author’s morale is making no comment, giving no reason for rejection or not replying all. The BMJ is guilty on this account as an article of mine was rejected that was accepted elsewhere after minor editing [6]. The BMJ, however, is in the good company of most biomedical journals who apply the COPE rules. The article lacked statistics of any kind that perhaps might be one of the reasons it was disliked at BMJ. To Editors’ credit, however, it took about a month to say ‘No’ that caused no momentum loss, unlike other Journals who reach the same verdict on other articles after 6 months or a year that drag another year or two before the author could recover and gather enough time, interest and energy to face the damn thing again. One subtle aim of that article [6], mentioned to BMJ Editors, was an attempt to say that “there is science and in particular evidence based medicine without statistics”.

It is a devil’s advocate to say statistics has not only been made into a “big lie” but also ‘false God’. It was invented elsewhere but currently worshiped only at most medical and surgical journals. A look at Science and Nature testifies such prestigious magazines have reduced statistics to real size and value as a “tool for testing a hypothesis”. It is not too basic a question for every biomedical peer reviewer to find out the exact role, aim and limitations of statistics. Some was mentioned in an article [7], nobody noticed save the late great Professor GD Chisholm editor of Br J Urology. It was based on a study that was rejected by a grant committee. It aimed at resolving 2 of the most serious puzzles of current clinical practice, postoperative hyponatraemia and the multiple vital organ dysfunction or failure syndrome [8]. However, giving data and statistics [7,8]. before clarifying the theories [9]. has proved as wrong as putting the cart in front of the horse. Einstein’s methods on proposing the special and general relativity theory is the correct way. When statistics was haled in the sixties everyone thought it was the only mean to discover “The Unifying Theory”.

This has proved both immensely costly and wrong. The basic fact is ‘statistics cannot, was not intended to and will never could, make a discovery’. Observation, mental experiments and the X factor are the only way to make a discovery long before it is verified and proved by practical studies and statistical tests. Before explaining the X-factor please allow me tell a relevant true story that symbolizes the current problem with statistics. Two friends of mine in UK had a disagreement, made a bit on a round of drinks and decided the first person to enter the hospital club will be the judge. Guess who did? I did but having no clue on how to resolve the conflict suggested that a flip of a coin might be the best way. They agreed also to my condition that while head or tail will determine the winner among them, if the coin stood on edge the judge should be the winner of all. It did and I won. Another conflict started on: Who should buy the 3rd round of drinks? Both agreed that it was my turn. I explained that buying the 3rd round will gain good company but lose all winnings, and my turn should be the 5th round! The point is statistics can tell the probability of head or tail and exclude the odd but when evaluating to either 0 or 100% and the truth is known, instead of expiring it generates residual arguments. Professor Richard Smith contributed to this debate by quoting Dr Hedge on Professor Robert Fox’s famous thought that “swabbing the rejects with the accepts does not make a difference.”

He added that perhaps it has already been done at BMJ” and asked “How can you know?” With due respect Sir, I frankly think nobody can. Despite a proven incremental value of an average article it does not make a noticeable difference or great loss to scientific advances. Statistically speaking that means a quality article submitted to BMJ has 50% chance of being accepted or rejected. So, why not save everybody the trouble and toss a coin? Here is where statistics has shot itself in the foot. It gives an average chance to the average and an odd chance to the odd but can’t tell which is important. The odd chance of a tossed coin to stand on edge matches that of a breakthrough scientific or medical article coming an editor or peer reviewer’s way but detecting such article makes all the difference. Some call it a hunch or gut feeling. Others qualify it by the three-pronged tests of quality, relevance and civility. Identifying the “X-factor” that makes such an article stand out is worth all the trouble. I honestly do not know but it is the arresting beauty found in Einstein’s famous papers, Newton’s laws, Mozart’s music and Shakespeare’s writing among many examples that include medicine [2-4]. I wrote 2 articles on such para-scientific para-medical stuff to identify the X-factor, “Rules and lures of the science game” and “The Mozarts of Science” sent to journals nearly two years ago and have not received a reply yet. I think a message of “Ignore the big headed bustard” arrived. Qualified people to find out the X-factor are COPE members. Another question that requires a ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answer would be: if any of Einstein’s papers is evaluated using the current peer review standard and statistics adopted by most biomedical journals, would it be accepted?

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