Lupine Publishers | Performance of West African Dwarf (Wad) Goats Fed Dietary Levels of Boiled Rubber Seed Meal (Hevea Brasiliensis)

   Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Abstract

Effect of boiled rubber seed meal (BRSM) based diets on the performance of West African Dwarf (WAD) bucks was investigated. Four groups of WADS were randomly fed with the 4 experimental diets (A–D) formulated to contain 0, 10, 20 and 30% BRSM. The experiment lasted for 56 days. Average daily feed intake (g) were 417.90; 428.93; 322.00 and 288.10 for diets A, B, C, D, and the corresponding average daily weight gain was 31.69, 53.92, 46.62, and 34.64 respectively. Feed/gain ratio was 6.90 for goats fed diet C and 7.95 for those fed with diet B. Feed cost per Kg weight gain was N 115.29 for diet C and N 120.42 for diet B. The warm carcass and dressing % were insignificant among the 4 treatment groups, but goats fed diet C showed superiority. Legs, shoulder, sets and bone to lean ratio differed significantly between the treatment groups.

Keywords: Conventional; Non-Conventional; Rubber Seed; West African Dwarf Goats

Introduction

The economic depression of nations has greatly reduced meat availability, and the inadequacy of meat supply has been aggravated by a combination of environment, feed and management factors Wikipedia, [1], Udo [2]. In recent years many categories of Nigerian farmers tend to invest in ruminant livestock farming Hoffmann [3] yet cost of conventional feeds still posed big challenge Hassan [4]. Feed as reported by Akpodiete and Inoni [5], accounts for 60 – 70% of total cost of livestock production and that it’s inadequacy in quality and quantity could lead to a situation of low nutritional status, poor weight gain, poor reproductive ability, poor production, poor health condition and poor conversion ratio Fajemisin [6]. It therefore, becomes important to supply adequate feed in quantity and quality for optimal performance by livestock. Goats’ farming offers ample opportunity for meat inclement and availability. They are easy to keep, require smaller capital investment, play significant role in socio-economic life of the people as they contribute about 35% Nigerian meat supply Oloche [7], and provides income to farmers Peacock [8]. West African dwarf goats are the prevalent and trypono-tolerant breed in the derived and guinea savannah zones Eroarome [9], Udo [10]. But it is worrisome that lack of government legislation for the multiplication of this hardy breed, nutritional constraint particularly during the dry season coupled with the extensive mode of production posed serious problem to their production in the tropic Ahamefule [11] and Ahamefule and Udo [12]. To address the nutritional need of goats, it is therefore, important to supplement their diet with concentrate. As a result of high cost conventional feedstuff and in attempt to reduce competition between man and livestock, nutritionists are in search for alternative non-conventional feedstuff that are cheap and readily available Ahamefule and Udo [12]. There are huge naturally occurring non-conventional feedstuffs that can profitably be used to stimulate small ruminant production Udo [2], Udo [10]. Prominent among them is rubber seed which has no feed value for human Udo [10]. The Humid tropics has large acreage of rubber plantation, and in Nigeria it is cultivated on estimated 185,000 hectares with seed collection of about 10,175 tonnes/year Udo [2], with crude protein content range of 21 – 28%, Crude fibre range of 4.47 – 8% (Udo [2], Udo [10], Njwe [13] and energy range of 2.32 – 2.58 MJ/Kg Udo [2]. Several works on rubber seed have been reported for some breeds animal: pigs Babatunde [14], poultry Nouke and Endeley, 2001, sheep Njwe [13]; but there is paucity of information on the feeding of rubber seed to West African Dwarf Goats. This work however, was designed to evaluate the performance of West African dwarf goat fed dietary levels of rubber seed meal based diet.

Materials and Methods

Experimental Site

The study was conducted at the Goat unit of the Teaching and Research farm, Akwa Ibom State University, Obio Akpa campus, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Obio Akpa is located between longitudes 7° 27’ E and 7° 58’ E. It is located within 3500 – 5000mm annual rainfall with average monthly temperature of 25 °C

Animal Management

Sixteen (16) weaners West African Dwarf (WAD) bucks of 6-7 months old were procured from farmers in the University environment and used for the investigation. On the fifth day of arrival, these animals were all dewormed using albendazole thiabendazole. They were subsequently given acaricide birth using asuntol solution and after that quarantined for 21 days and fed forage and supplements of the test diet for acclimatization. They were vaccinated against Pestes des petite ruminant (PPR) using Rinder pest Tissue culture vaccine. The goats were randomly divided into four groups of four goats per treatment and housed individually in well ventilated cement floored pens equipped with feeders and drinkers.

Experimental Design/Procedures

Four diets were formulated to contain 0 – 30% boiled rubber seed meal (BRSM) and designated as A, B, C and D. These diets were assigned randomly to the four animal groups in a completely randomised design. Each goat received 1kg of designated diet in addition to 2Kg of guinea grass (Panicum maximum). Daily feed intake was determined by subtracting daily feed refusal from the 1kg given the previous day. These were used to calculate the average daily feed intake, average daily weight gain feed conversion ratio, and feed economics of production for each treatment group.

Experimental Diets

Four (4) experimental diets (A-D) were formulated to contain various inclusion levels (0-30%) of boiled rubber seed meal (BRSM) with other conventional ingredients as shown in (Table 1).

Processing of Rubber Seed

Twenty (20) kilogrammes of raw rubber seeds were introduced into cooking pot (in batches) whose water has attained boiling temperature (100 °C) and allowed to boil for 30 minutes after which the seeds were decanted. The boiled seeds were sun-dried for seven (7) days, then dehulled and nuts milled, pressed using garri processing machine to remove oil and the products used to formulate boiled rubber seed meal-based diet (BRSM).

Slaughter Technique

At the end of the feeding trail, three goats per treatment group were starved for 24 hours prior to slaughter. Each goat was weighed before slaughter, after bleeding and after dressing. Dressing percentages were calculated as the weight of dressed warm carcass in relation to the live weight before slaughter. The dressed warm carcass is defined as the weight of the goat after the removal of the head, skin, content of the thoracic, limbs, distal to the carpal and tarsal joints and pelvic cavities (including the diaphragm and kidney). The lungs, head, heart, liver, limb (four feet) and skin were weighed also.

Carcass Evaluation

Three animals per treatment group were slaughtered for carcass evaluation. Jointing of carcass (meat cut) was done following the method adopted by Ahamefule [11]. Each dressed warm carcass was divided down the spinal cord by means of meat saws into two (2) equal half and weighed individually. The left half was subsequently divided into various cuts consisting of thigh, shoulder, loin, sets and ends. Each of the cuts was weighed and the weight doubled in each case before expressing it as percentage of the dressed carcass. The leg (thigh) was severed at the attachment of the femur to the acetabulium; the loin consists of the lumber region plus a pair of ribs, the ends (spare ribs plus belly) consist of six (6) abdominal ribs, the shoulder consist of the scapular, and the sets made up of the breast and the neck. The loin cuts were then dissected into muscles and bone with ligament to obtain the meat to bone ratio.

tatistical Analysis

The experiment was laid out as completely Randomized design. All data were analysed in a one –way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS [15] package. Duncan’s Multiple Range Test Duncan [16] was used to separate significant means.

Chemical Analysis

All feed samples were analysed for proximate composition using AOAC (2007).

Results and Discussion

The composition and proximate assay of the experimental diets formulated to contain 0-30% boiled rubber seed meal (BRSM) are presented in (Table 1). The dry matter (DM) content of the diets, save for ration B (10% BRS), were fairly comparable (Table 2). The crude protein (CP) ranged from 14.06 – 15.82% and increased as inclusion levels of BRSM increased from B-D. Crude fibre (%) (CF) followed a reverse trend of the CP values. The ether extract (EE) composition (%) increased from diets A-D and stabilized in C and D. the ash contents (%) of the diets followed similar pattern as the EE, rising and stabilizing as the case was. Nitrogen free extract (NFE) values (%) rose from A-B and subsequently decline in diets C and D. The energy values (Kcal/g) followed similar trend as NFE. CP and energy content of the four diets were all above what is required by WAD goats as reported by Ahamefule [11], Akinsonyinu [17].

Table 1: Proximate composition of experimental diets containing various levels of boiled rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) seed meal.

Table 2: Chemical assay of experimental diets containing various levels of boiled rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) seed meal (%DM).

*Calculated, BRSM= Boiled rubber seed meal.

Response of West African Dwarf (WAD) Goats

The performance of WAD goats fed various inclusion level of boiled rubber seed meal (BRSM) is shown in Table 3. Goats fed 10% BRSM consumed significantly (P<0.05) more feed (428.93g/d) than goats fed diets containing 0% (417.90 g/d), 20% (322.00g/d) and 30% (288.04g/d) BRSM. Goats fed diet A (Control) had similar intake (P>0.05) with goats fed 10% BRSM diet; their values were significantly different (P<0.05) with the feed intake of goats fed diets C and D. This may be due to the increasing levels of rubber seed meal from B-D which Gohl [18] reported that rubber seed is not quite palatable and appetizing to ruminant. However, the values obtained in this report is in consonance with previous reports by Spring [19] that feed intake and growth decreased as rubber seed meal (RSM) incorporation levels increased in poultry rations. Njwe [13] also reported that rubber seed is not quite appetizing to sheep and that RSM should not exceed 20% level incorporation and not more than 10% for poultry Babatunde [19] while Devendra [20] considered 20% as optimal inclusion level for pigs. The trend of intake in this study agrees with the report by Rajan [21] that weight gain was not affected when fed diet containing 20% BRSM, but subsequently, a linear decrease in feed intake and daily weight gain occurred as the incorporation of BRSM exceeds 20%. The feed gain ratio for goats fed 20% BRSM was least (6.90) and apparently best and was in line with the reports Njwe [13], Rajan [21] that small ruminants can utilize up to 20% rubber seed without adverse effect on performance. The average daily weight gain range of 34.64 – 53.92g obtained in this study compared favourably with the range reported for WAD goats within the first 12 months of life Nuru [22], Anya [23].

Table 3: Performance of WAD Goats Fed Experimental Diets Containing Various Levels of Boiled Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) Seed Meal.

^a,b,cMeans on the same row with superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05).

Feed Economy

Table 4: Feed economies of WAD goats fed various inclusion levels of boiled rubber seed meal-based diets.

The economy of feeding WAD goats with various inclusion levels of boiled rubber seed meal (BRSM) is presented in Table 4. Daily feed consumed by animals in treatment A and B were similar, but the two groups differed significantly (P<0.05) from animals fed diets C and D that were also similar in their feed intake. Goats fed diet B (10% BRSM) supported highest daily weight gain followed by 20% and 30% respectively. The daily weight gain range (34.64 – 53.92g/d) reported in this study is lower than the range (35 – 65 g/d) reported by Nuru [22] for WAD goats. The feed cost per kilogram weight gain was N150.71 for goats fed diets A of 0% BRSM. The corresponding values for animals fed diets B, C and D were N120.42, N115.29 and N151.65 respectively. The result obtained in this study followed the findings trend of similar investigations by Ahamefule [11] and Anya [23]. They also reported superior feed cost per kilogramme weight gain for WAD goats fed diets containing 20% Pigeon pea and African yam bean respectively. For best yield returns on investment, incorporation of 20% BRSM in WAD goat’s diet is advisable.

Carcass Characteristics

Table 5 shows the carcass yield of WAD goats fed graded levels of diets. The superior warm carcass value (4.09Kg) obtained for goats fed 20% BRSM was not significantly (P<0.05) different from the values of 3.40Kg, 3.67Kg and 2.84Kg recorded for goats fed 0%, 10% and 30% BRSM respectively. More so, there was no significant different (P<0.05) in their dressing percent, though goats fed diet C (20% BRSM) has a superior value of 45.40. The range of dressing percent (DP) obtained in this study (37.22 – 45.40) was comparable with the values (33.05 – 58.07) reported by Udo and Nuru (1985) 45 – 52% for WAD goats in different feeding trials. In Table 6 significant differences (P<0.005) only occur among treatment groups for leg, shoulder, sets and bone to lean ratio. The leg meat cut (g) was best for goats fed diet C (1115.40) and was not significantly different (P<0.05) from goats fed diet B (1030.30), but however differed (P<0.05) significantly from values for goats fed diets A (875.00) and D (525.00). In the shoulder cut (g), goats fed diet C had best cut (1030.30) which also differed (P<0.05) significantly from corresponding values obtained for goats fed diets A (803.10), B (926.90) and D (510.00) Goats fed 20% BRSM (C) diet had sets value (650.00g) which was superior (P<0.05) to other treatment groups. In all parameters investigated goats fed BRSM yielded superior meat cuts relative to other treatment groups indicating that it was best utilized of all the diets. The relatively high but comparable bone to lean ratio obtained for goats fed 0% and 30% BRSM diets in this study is an indication of high feed conversion efficiency by goats in group C (20% BRSM). This is also confirmed by the superior dressing percent (45.40%) and lowest (6.90) feed conversion ratio of goats fed 20% BRSM diet. The mean organ weight for the different group of goats fed the BRSM diets in Table 4-6 shows that all the organs (Liver, Kidney, Heart, Lungs and Spleens) weights were similar (P<0.05); they were not affected by the dietary treatments. Proving that all the inclusion levels of BRSM were safe as dietary concentrate for WAD goats but 20% BRSM diet gave outstanding performance in feed gain ratio, daily weight gain, dressing percent, meat cuts (leg, Shoulder, loin, sets, ends) and bone to lean ratio of WAD goats. Therefore for goat’s production/ fattening programmes, 20% inclusion level of boiled rubber seed meal is recommended as it also produced the cheapest cost per. kilogramme weight gain. This study has shown that if WAD goats are given right nutrition, sixty days could be used to fatten them to market weight, therefore making it possible for a farmer to carry out fattening programmes up to 6 times in a year. Thus generating good income for the farmer.

Table 5: Carcass yield of West Africa dwarf goats fed various levels of boiled rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) seed meal-based diets.

_abcdMeans in the same row with different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05).

Table 6: Average weight of meat cuts, organs and offal weights expressed as percentages of warm carcass or empty live weight.

Conclusion

This study revealed that boiled rubber seed meal generally enhanced performance at different level (10-30% BRSM) with all the inclusion levels being safe as dietary supplement for WAD goats. However, 20% BRSM inclusion level gave the best performance, and is therefore recommended for goat’s production/fattening programme as it also produced the cheapest cost per kilogramme weight gain.

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Lupine Publishers | Success Story of Common Bean Technology Pre-Scaling Up in Southern Ethiopia

 Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Introduction

Pulses grown in 2016/17 (2009 E.C.) covered 12.33% (1,549,911.86 hectares) of the grain crop area and 9.69% (about 28,146,331.73 quintals) of the grain production was drawn from the same crops. Faba beans, haricot beans (white), haricot beans (red), and chick peas were planted to 3.40% (about 427,696.80 hectares), 0.63% (about 78,910.13 hectares), 1.68% (about 211,292.30 hectares) and 1.79% (about 225,607.53 hectares) of the grain crop area. The production obtained from faba beans, haricot beans (white) haricot beans (red) and chick peas was 3.02% (about 8,780,108.79 quintals), 0.43% (about 1,259,801.75 quintals), 1.23% (3,579,424.75 quintals) and 1.53% (4,441,459.26 quintals) of the grain production, in that order CSA [1]. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the second most important source of human dietary calories and also it has a high nutritional value with important protein contents (~22%), minerals (calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, zinc), and vitamins necessary to warrant the food security of people in the developing countries Misgana and Taddese [2].

Production of common bean by introducing the improved and high yielding varieties could make an important contribution to increase agricultural production and productivity in the area where there is low practice of using improved varieties of common bean. To this end, using the improved common varieties could be one of the alternatives to improve productivity by small farmers. However, production of common bean using the improved varieties is not yet introduced and studied in the target area. Thus, this research work is initiated to investigate the success story of using improved common bean varieties in Irish Aid Operational Technology Dissemination Project Mandate area of Areka Agricultural Research center Tekle. et.al [3].

Preface

In Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR) particularly the project target Woredas are characterized by persistent food insecurity with many farming household not producing enough food and income to meet families’ food requirements. Improved agricultural technologies largely focusing on increasing yield and market value have an important role in increasing productivity, income and building household food security. The increased agricultural productivity also boosted by the availabilities and access of new and improved agricultural technologies. Improved agricultural technologies, management practices, and inclusion of resource poor household for enhanced technological access also have a proven track record on improving food security and decreasing susceptibility to individual stresses. Thus, investing in dissemination of improved agricultural technologies is key to improve the livelihood of low-income and food insecure households. By recognizing this, Irish Aid has launched technology dissemination initiative with aims to reducing poverty for poor and marginalized farmers, particularly women; driving agricultural growth by linking poor farmers into new and improved crop, livestock, and natural resource conservation technologies.

The Operational Research Technology Dissemination project (ORTDP) is addressing key agricultural development challenges prioritized by both the Ethiopian and Irish governments: improved food security, poverty reduction and greater gender equity, better nutrition outcomes and more climate resilient food and farming systems through supporting of rural poor household by accessing for improved agricultural technologies. Southern Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) in collaboration with Irish-Aid has been currently investing in agricultural research and dissemination of improved agricultural technologies focusing on crop, livestock, and natural resource management. The technologies being disseminated are tested and proven to have potential for up scaling to improve productivity, food and nutrition security, and climate resilience of resource poor farmers. For the past five years, the project has disseminated more than 33 proven crop, livestock, and natural resource management technologies for more than 13266 resource poor household in seven food insecure woredas of the region especially for whose landholding less than 0.25 hectare and women.

The project has reviewed its performance and status to lay out strategic directions and priorities for agriculture technologies dissemination and extension in the region. As one component to address the OR project goal particularly to reduce poverty or improve nutrition, common bean is one of the crop technologies disseminated by the project and its performance has been evaluated giving an account in addressing issues related to productivity, income, nutrition and adaptability to ever changing environment. Of the technologies successfully disseminated by the project, the common bean case studies presented as proven bestbet agricultural technologies and innovations that are available for uptake and up scaling. This case study was conducted in five ORTDP project woredas of common bean disseminated. Farmers for the case study were selected randomly from beneficiary and non-beneficiaries. Thus, from the project woredas 135 farmers were selected of which 80(60%) farmers were beneficiaries and 55(40%) farmers’ non-beneficiaries. Data collection sheet was prepared to collect quantitative and qualitative data regarding the productivity, income, food, and nutrition, trends on use of improved seed, adoption, and challenges. The data collected was subjected for simple descriptive statistical analysis.

Justification of the Intervention

Common bean is one of lowland pulses produced on hot regions. It has been known as an export crop for long period contributing to the foreign exchange earnings. It is also grown for home consumption. Common bean is consumed in traditional dishes. In SNNPRS, it is a popular food as “nifro” with maize and it is also consumed with Kocho. Despite its role in the farming system and in supporting the national economy, yield has been low and stagnant for several years. There could be several reasons for this but the most important ones are lack of improved varieties with desirable agronomic practices, low yield potential of local varieties, and diseases. Especially low production and distribution of improved seed is limited among resource poor farmers. Besides this, the access of the improved varieties has been low for poorest farmers. Therefore, ORTDP project has proposed to promote various improved common bean varieties (hawassa dume, and nassir) for five consecutive years and wajo and tatu for the past two years only aimed to improve income, diversify diets, and improves nutritional status of poorest households in six project intervention woredas.

Result and Achievement

In the last five project intervention years, ORTDP has addressed 1357 resource poor households with improved common bean dissemination, especially for farmers who unable to access improved seeds and had smaller land (farmers their landholding less than 0.25ha). Through revolving seed, more than 1160 households have benefited. Totally, 2517 households are benefited by direct provision and revolving of improved common bean seeds. The project has provided 241 quintals of four improved common bean varieties (hawassa dume, Nasir, wajo and tatu) and popularized on 591 hectare of land throughout the project intervention years. These varieties have been successfully promoted in all woredas using cluster-based approaches accompanying with practical agronomic practice training and its related input as a package. Participatory technology dissemination method and cluster approach was a key element of the implementation of this project. The study in line with Bassa et al. [4], which confirmed enabling poor farmers to use full packages of agriculture through direct provision, capacity building, awareness creation and sustainable supporting the extension system promotes agricultural productivity there by enable the small-scale farmers to be in position of food security and build assed (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Mean Productivity of common bean Qt/ha before and After project intervention.

Improved Productivity

Based on the suitability and agro-ecological adaptability of crops ORTDP has disseminated different crop varieties for beneficiaries. While the project proposes four common bean varieties for demonstration, the primary criterion was its contribution to increase of productivity of common bean. The advantages of theses common bean varieties include their high yield potential, early maturity, and nutritional values. Midterm impact evaluation revealed that yields of common bean have increased by 66% twofold over 4-years period among beneficiaries in comparison to a 30% increase of mean yield for non-beneficiaries. The increase in productivity mainly attributed the higher productivity of new varieties, slight increase of common bean cultivated land by beneficiaries, and the application of fertilizer (NPS) for common bean, which was uncommon among many farmers in many project woredas. The survey report also indicates that 10% increase in average annual cultivated land per household for common bean (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Mean Common bean Land cultivated per year per household.

Food and Nutrition Security

Increased production has also led to significant improvement in food security and nutrition. As survey report in Figure 3, over 62% of project beneficiary household consume common bean at least once in a week while only 18.8% of non-beneficiary household consume common bean at least once in a week. Consumption of common beans was much more prevalent in among beneficiaries, while lesser extent among non-beneficiaries. This indicates that project beneficiaries tend to produce more for food than cash. Through their consumption household can have food nutrients like protein and iron that common bean contains. Caution needs to be taken in interpreting these nutritional results. While it reveal some interesting trends on contribution to nutrition, what is not mean that household access all required food items that meets the nutritional security standards (amount of killo calories per day/week). The data to what extent reflects the availability and access of common bean, which rich in nutrition through their own production. This also have a significant contribution to food security with many nutritional benefits, as it is rich in protein, iron, zinc, and dietary fibre. These constituents contributed to the improvement in food and nutrition and the common bean acceptance by farmers.

Figure 3: Distribution of weekly common bean among surveyed household(%).

Improved Income

Farmers in all woreda use common bean both for cash generation and for home consumption although the majority use for cash. Common bean is grown in both production seasons; belg and meher seasons with the main growing season being belg. Farmers are in great need of cash for the meher season especially wheat and teff producing woreda to buy agricultural inputs like fertilizer and seed. The yield of the new varieties is about two times those of local bean and generated an additional income for household. Therefore, common bean is strategic cash crop, which fulfils the immediate cash demand for input purchase. Moreover these, its short production period, legumness and related soil fertility improvement characteristics increased, and erratic rain fall and relatively less susceptibility to weather change increased the demand of common bean production maximization year to year. During interviewees farmers mentioned that most of the common bean produced during, Belg season is sold to generate income. As indicated in the baseline report, crop income for farmers in SNNPR ORTDP project woreda comes from sale of cereals such as wheat, teff, and sorghum, and during the survey time, the annual income from cereals was 1532 ETB (ORTDP baseline survey report, 2012). After four years of project implementation, the annual mean cash income obtained only from sale of common bean for both project beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries reaches over 3,254 birr per household (Figure 4). The actual mean annual cash income for non-beneficiaries is higher for beneficiaries; this is because when compared to beneficiaries, non-beneficiaries sold more of what they produced.

Figure 4: Mean annual income of households from common bean after intervention in Birr.

Technology Adoption

The common bean varieties disseminated by the project were evaluated against the local variety by using 13 criteria. More than 59% farmers in the survey districts evaluated Nasir and Hawassa Dume by seed emergence, suitability for inter cropping, seed size, seed color, early maturity, yield, taste, and marketability. Over all rank calculated shows that Nasir and Hawassa Dume have first preference by farmers in the all project location. Both the local and new varieties have the same market demand as they have the same color. Trends on planting of improved common bean varieties in project woredas during base lines ranged from 10% to 50% with mean value 27.8%. After four years of intervention, trends on use those common bean varieties has become 59.2%. Three different successful aspects of the new bean varieties were identified by farmers during the survey: improved taste, higher productivity, and market-preferred attributes reported among both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. In addition, drought tolerant and early maturity aspects of varieties has also contributed to the better adoption not only project kebele but also in neighboring kebeles. As this was one of the outputs of the operational research programme, and 60% of households included in the survey were programme participants, it suggests more work has to be done through regular extension in disseminating and promoting of those improved common bean varieties among non-beneficiary household.

Drivers to Success

As it described in section 2.1 higher productivity, marketability, and compatibility with the color preference of farmers were the main drivers for the successful dissemination of those common bean varieties. Beside this, the project full package approach enables poorest to increase their productivity using fertilizer as a package. The use of fertilizer for the common bean especially NPS were uncommon in most project woredas and the project has tried to demonstrate the yield difference using NPS fertilizer. Moreover, the project’s cluster-based technology dissemination and transfer approach played a significant role to easily diffusion of knowledge and practice from one cluster to the other and created a critical mass on disseminated technologies.

Challenges

Despite the significant contribution of common bean for food security, income and nutrition challenges are remaining. Farmers reported that the susceptibility to disease and pest and less tolerant to flood and heavy rainfall and management problem especially improper application of fertilizer. The significant number of farmers reported that they have not applied fertilizer mainly NPS as recommended rate.

Opportunities for Further Scaling Up

As indicated above in section 2.4, high productivity, early maturity, its color acceptability, its taste, suitability for intercropping and marketability played a significant contribution for the successful popularization and adoption of common bean varieties disseminated in project woreda as well as beyond project area. Beside this the ever-increasing market demand on common bean, availability of seed at local level, availability of organized seed and marketing system and availability of diverse agro-ecology that suitable for cultivate common bean in the region was the major opportunities to further scale up the common bean technologies in the region.

Key Lesson and Recommendation

The interventions in agricultural research and dissemination have been strong components in strategies to promote sustainable agricultural development. Previously the technology dissemination approaches were focused on strengthening the productivity aspects of the technologies. Currently the project has disseminated the common bean varieties focused demand of farmers. The project considers the multi-benefits and interactions of common bean technologies disseminated with interest and demands of farmers for technologies. In all project woreda, farmers give equal priority for income generating potential of technology as productivity potential. Therefore, common bean technologies disseminated by the project has great demand by the community for food consumption as well as for income source and is a major crop in the area. A technology, which has great demand by beneficiaries, have multi-benefit and agro-ecologically suitable, ultimately leads to success. The varieties distributed by the project fulfill most of farmers’ interest and their production objectives and that is why it became successful.

Therefore, the food and income security of poorest and marginalized people could be enhanced through accessing poorest household for demand driven better yielding and high valued agricultural technologies. Moreover, the project’s cluster based technology dissemination and transfer approach played a significant role to easily diffusion of knowledge and practice from one cluster to the other and created a critical mass on disseminated common bean technologies. This approach can bridge the research with extension in more interlinked way and accelerate technology transfer between farmers. In addition, most of farmers prefers to plant common bean as intercropping rather than mono cropping. Their preference varies with the primary objective of farmers. Farmers whose primary objective is for household consumption and have land shortage tends to cultivate as intercropping while farmers with their primary objective for cash tends to cultivate as mono-cropping. Intercropping production of common bean among households having less than 0.25ha is more advantageous over mono cropping cultivation.

Generally, it can be concluded that farmers demand driven technology dissemination can lead to accelerated technology adoption and knowledge transfer. Dissemination of any research outputs or technologies likes common bean to address multi-fated problem of resource poor farmers can be successful if it considers the primary production interest or objectives of poor farmers and the multi-benefit potential of the technologies. In addition, it was recommended that the greater use of research or technology for income generation might have the greater contribution to speed up improvement of livelihood of resource poor farmers and adoption of the technologies.

Acknowledgement

The research teams provide acknowledgements and own great appreciation on Ireland Embassy, All Ireland people and its Irish Aid department of foreign affairs for financial support of project implementation and case study successful accomplishment, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Southern Agricultural Research Institute and Areka Agricultural Research center for supporting in implementation.

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Lupine Publishers | Role of Ephemerals in Sustainability of Grazing Lands in Arid Areas

  Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Abstract

Ephemeral species germinate with onset of rains and complete their lifecycle by setting seeds as the soil moisture declines within one growing season. Though their life cycle is short, they play a multifaceted role in ecological and economic sustenance of arid regions in general and grazing lands in particular. This role of ephemerals emanating from various studies has been synthesized here in respect of Indian arid zone. Nearly half of the reported 682 species in the Indian arid zone are ephemeral and seasonal, the majority being monsoonal. They constitute bulk of alpha diversity on any landscape. These occur on all land uses i.e., croplands and grazing lands. Species composition of ephemerals which varies on different habitats and in varying annual precipitation has been described in this paper.

Changes is species composition, cover and biomass of ephemerals due to grazing have been discussed. Comparing phenology of selected seasonals in different grazing pressures with those in protected areas revealed that increasing grazing stress caused a typical shift in their phenophases. Production potential of ephemerals estimated in a large variety of situations indicated that they contribute differently to the total biomass of the grazing lands representing different range conditions. Since ephemerals being palatable offer grazable material, their role in prolonging duration of range use by the livestock has been proved from case studies. Besides, ephemerals occur as weeds of cropland, their composition and biomass on different habitats have been described to assess their contribution to liverstock support. The ecological value of self regenerated ephemerals in rehabilitation of disturbed lands such as mine spoils has been discussed. Many of these ephemerals are also medicinally important with proven economic potential for enhancing the livelihood of desert dwellers.

Keywords: Ephemerals; Sustainability; Grazing; Phenophase; Biomass

Introduction

Arid regions experience a spurt in vegetation emergence during monsoon. While perennials regenerate, the annual species germinate to put up a sprawling green cover bringing profound changes in the desert landscape. These include changes in species compositions, phenology, production and utilization of these ephemerals vis-a-vis perennials. While extensive literature exists on these aspects in respect of perennials, little attention seems to have been paid to the desert ephemerals. Secondly, twelve extreme arid districts in western Rajasthan have 67.2% area under culturable waste which is used as grazing ground [1]. This region provides highest quantum of meat, milk, and wool to the country from an area (36%) of which 2/3 area is largely a degraded wasteland. Encroachment of these grazing lands is shrinking their area on one hand while quality of the feed is also declining due to overstocking. How constantly shrinking grazing lands in this region, which are also declining in feed quality with less perennial grasses sustain enhancing livestock pressure has been a paradox. Do ephemerals play any role in sustainability of these grazing lands was a question that needed an independent investigation for arriving at unbiased conclusion. An attempt has therefore been made in present paper to collate and synthesize results of studies on various such aspects to prove that ephemerals do play an important role in sustainability of grazing lands in arid areas with special reference to Indian arid zone

The Environment

Region facing annual water deficit of two - third or more of the potential evapotranspiration (PET) is classified as arid [2]. Semi arid regions experience this deficit ranging from one third to two third of PET. Using this criteria 9.56 lakh km2 (30.50%) can be classified as semi arid and 3.81 lakh km2 (10.16%) area as arid in India. Arid region of India has over 60% area in western Rajasthan and experience extremes of temperature (0 to 4 °C in winter and 45- 48 °C in summer), low annual precipitation ranging from 450mm in the east to 10mm in the west, low humidity, high wind velocity and high evapotranspiration. Soils are sandy, poor in nutrient with low water holding capacity and prone to erosion by wind and water. Natural vegetation in such edapho climatic conditions is sparse and stunted, predominantly spiny belonging mainly to grass cover type Dichanthium- Cenchrus-Lasiurus- type and very small area having Sehima- Dichanthium type [3].

Dichanthium - Cenchrus_ Lasiurus Cover Type

This grass cover occurs in the region receiving 100-750mm rainfall with higher mean temperature during summer (42-48 °C) and winter temperature as low as 1 to 2 °C). These grasses occur mainly on alluvial soils with varying amount of loam having high soluble salts and pale gray and brown colours. The geographical extent of 4.36 × 105sq km area is distributed in northern portion of Gujarat, Rajasthan (excluding Aravallis), western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi State and semi arid Punjab and Haryana [4]. This cover type has 11 perennial grasses, 45 other herbaceous species of which 19 are legumes. The predominant woody perennials here include Acacia senegal, Calotropis procera and Cassia auriculata. These areas look typical as savanna lands.

Floristics of Herbage

Table 1: Herbage species and their families in the Indian arid zone (S=season, W=winter, M=monsoon, A=all yr).

Arid part of Rajasthan has 682 species. Of these 331 are ephemerals belonging to 44 families [5] (Table 1). Hydrophytes have been excluded from this analysis. Some 54 species are winter ephemerals; 17 occur in both monsoon and winter. In true sense, some 260 species (38.12% of flora) constitute monsoon herbage. These belong to 188 genera and 44 families. Amongst families, Poaceae has maximum i.e. 53 monsoon species followed by 25 in Fabaceae and 20 each in Cyperaceae and Asteraceae, 15 in Euphoriaceae, 14 in Convolvulaceae and 11 in Acanthaceae, and remaining families having lesser than these species.

Herbage Communties

Vegetation is a reflex of climate, land form and its surface deposit. Broadly classified on the basis of physiognomy, six characteristic types are recognized in the Indian arid zone [6]. These are

a) Mixed xeromorphic thorn forest on hill and rock outcrops.

b) Mixed xeromorphic wood lands on piedmonts and alluvial plains.

c) Mixed xeromorphic riverine thorn forest on younger alluvial plain around desertic river and water bodies.

d) Lithophytes scrub on eroded rocky gravelly plains.

e) Psammophytic scrub on sand dunes, hummocks and sandy plains.

f) Halophytic scrub on low lying saline flats or ranns (Table 2).

Table 2: Vegetation types of Indian Arid zone.

Each vegetation type has specific trees, shrubs, forbs, grasses and seasonals [7]. Though ephemeral/seasonals are specific to each vegetation type, their common occurrence within two or more vegetation types indicates that their niche requirements are met there. It is important to note that most of the ephemerals often form pure colonies under trees and shrubs. In fact, these are the pioneer species in succession of vegetation on these habitats when their dominance is 80-100% in the beginning of colonization and ecesis and it declines to often 20-30% in the sub-climax to climax formation.

Life Cycle Of Ephemerals

Besides showing spatial specificity, some ephemerals are unique in their temporal presence; being ‘accidental vegetation [8]. Accidental vegetation appears only during high rainfall; say once in the years when rainwater collects in depression where these species come up. Monsoon herbage act as ‘rain-gauges’ i.e. these will germinate only after a particular amount of rain is received in one event. In contrast, there are species which germinate at the very first event of rainfall irrespective of amount. These include large number of species of Indigofera, Aristida and Cenchrus. If there is no successive rain with in a span of 15-20 days these will start flowering and set seeds as early as 20 days to 40-50 days. This has been confirmed by sequential sampling of permanent plots where seasonal variation in monsoonal vegetation has been charted and measured on rocky habitats [9], alluvial plains [10] and semi rocky habitats [11]. Their findings are: Within 21 days of rain, annuals were maximum 33.58% in August and declined to 13.6% by end of September on rocky habitats of Kailana, near Jodhpur. Likewise, maximum dominance of annual grasses was 14% within 18 days of rain and it declined to almost 1/3 i.e., 4.6% by the end of September on alluvial plains in Jodhpur. It has been found that at each germination event, 20-25% seeds of entire seed bank germinate and remaining are dormant. This is an ecological adaptation in annuals to germinate only a fraction of total seed bank so as to preserve the rest for next rain event. This ensures that if seedlings die or disappear without completing life cycle and formation of seeds, the remaining seed bank portion held with in soil is able to regenerate and continue the progeny. If however, there are continuously well distributed spells of rain, they continue to grow vegetatively till they face water stress. Growth up to 50-60 cm height has been observed in these species in case of prolonged wet spell. This indicates the plasticity in annual habit of these plants.

Composition of Herbage in Protected and Degraded Conditions

Table 3: Botanical composition of herbage in protected (P) and unprotected (Unp) grazinglands in three rain fall situations in Indian arid zone.

The composition of seasonals undergoes a drastic change upon grazing. A comparison of protected and grazed paddocks of grazingland at the end of 3 years and receiving 150mm, 250mm and 400mm rain at Chandan, Beechwal and Palsana respectively revealed that grazed sites had preponderance of unpalatable annual forbs and such grasses which have awns that deter animals (Table 3) from grazing [12]. Analysis of dominance revealed that in low rainfall zones, seasonals have RIV of nearly 10 in protected conditions and this increased three times upon degradation. In 250mm rainfall zone, the RIV of seasonals nearly 12 in protection became double i.e. 24.33 in degraded conditions. In 400mm rainfall, the seasonals dominated by having RIV of 54 under protection and 75 under degradation. Thus dominance of monsoon seasonals increased with increasing annual rainfall and increased grazing stress.

Production Potential

There are a large number of studies on estimation of dry matter yield of rainy season ephemerals at regional, landscape and local level. Shankar and Kumar [13] estimated Aristida – Oropetium cover on 2526sq. km area in Jaisalmer with their yield as low as 5 kg/ha. However, contribution of seasonals varied from 2-27% in total dry matter that was 180 kg to 922 kg/ha on different habitats in Jaisalmer. Potential of fair condition class grazingland was estimated as air dry 14 kg/ha for Aristida- Eragrostis type, 700 kg/ha in Digitaria adscendens type, 3430 kg/ha in Echinochloa colonum type and 4570 kg/ha in Dachtyloctenium aegyptium in Jalore district [14]. At landscape level, production of palatable monsoonals in 3 landscapes in Churu district was 174, 250 and 567kg/ha on forest floor, a planted grazingland and moderately degraded natural grazing land (Table 4). In Sikar, a protected site has 491kg/ha (92.9%) palatable and 40kg (7.1%) unpalatable herbage. The adjoining unprotected site had 230kg/ha palatable (71%) and 95kg/ha unpalatable herbage biomass [12]. Not only the total herbage yield but also yield of palatable species decline upon indiscriminate grazing. This also indicated a potential of regeneration of seasonal palatable herbage to the tune of nearly half a ton per hectare by mere protection.

Table 4: Production potential of grazingland herbage (kg.ha) in Churu District.

Table 5: Herbage Yield of different grass cover types on different habitats in Guhiya catchment.

Its dependency on rain amount was proved by [15]. Estimates of grazable biomass in Guhiya catchment covering Pali and southem Jodhpur district (Table 5) revealed that predominantly seasonal grazinglands have approximate 449-470kg/ha dry matter yield, which is comparable to such grazing lands supporting perennials species. A scope of improvement in yield and carrying capacity was also predicted [16]. At village level, estimates in Bikaner district revealed that herbage yield in overgrazed native grazinglands was nearly half (330.98 kg/ha) of the nearby protected area (610.65kg/ ha) which was fenced for two years (Table 6). It is interesting to note that even under protection the bulk of dry matter, i.e. nearly 44% was by a single monsoon legume i.e. Indigofera cordifola (Table 6) though there were other contributors like Cenchrus biflorous, Tribulus alatus, Farestia hamiltonii and Mollugo cerviana, their exact contribution was not reported by [17]. But this estimate amply proves that monsoon seasonals not only make up 34% of floristic composition, they also make up over 50% of biomass of grazing lands which is palatable too, in both protection and degraded conditions.

Table 6: Cover, dominance and herbage yield in a protected (P) and unprotected (Unp) village grazinglands in six villages in Bikaner.

Similar conclusion was reached by [18] in seven-year monitoring of rangelands of Lawan in Jaisalmer stating that “--- major contribution in all grazing plots was from Indigofera cordifolia (1.26-1.98%) and less than one percent form perennial grasses”. In extremely degraded conditions however, all palatable are removed and unpalatable biomass also remain ½ and 1/3 of that in protected situations. The important implication of this finding is that nearly 70% of grazingland in Indian arid zone are degraded while 14% are in fair, 13% in good and 2-3% have excellent condition class [19]. It is these 70% areas which have poor perennial plant cover but a preponderance of monsoon seasonals and these ephemerals constitute available grazable material @ 500Kg/ha to sustain liverstock.

Ephemeral’s Response to Grazing

Impact of different levels of grazing on cover of selected annual forbs and annual grasses in permanent quadrats and transects in arid and semi arid regions was investigated in one monsoon season at two sites in India: low rainfall arid site (240mm/year) at Chandan experimental site of CAZRI in Jaisalmer district in western India and a high rainfall semi arid site (400mm/year) at Pali experimental site of CAZRI in Pali district [20]. Treatments were: No grazing (control), 50% or half of carrying capacity (3 sheeps/ha), 100% of carrying capacity (6 sheeps /ha) and 50% more than carrying capacity(8 sheeps/ha). Mild grazing of 3 sheep/ ha and sometimes even 6 sheep/ha at arid Chandan site enhanced the cover of three annual grasses, Aristida mutabilis, C. biflorus, Latipes senegalensis from July to October. Such an increase was more than that in control or 8 sheep/ha treatment, confirming the fact that mild grazing promotes the growth. In contrast, annual forbs (Indigofera cordifolia, I. linifolia, I. hochstetteri and Gisekia pharnaceoides) cover declined with increasing grazing pressure. Response to increasing grazing pressure was different at semiarid Pali site: though Aristida mutabilis increased with increasing grazing pressure, the other forbs species also increased up to September and declined later, with increasing grazing pressure.

This was also confirmed by positive significant correlation between cover and grazing intensity i.e., increases in cover with increasing grazing pressure in Aristida mutabilis. Importantly, correlation coefficient between grazing pressure and cover of Indigofera hochstetteri, I. cordifolia, I. linifolia at arid site and C. pumila at semi arid site was strongly negative. Thus same species behaves differently in two different rainfall situations. It emerged from above that annual species after being nibbled or partly grazed by sheep re-sprout and assume growth in semi arid situation, behaving much as multi cut fodder corp. These findings were in conformity with results of an earlier grazing experiment of three years at Kailana, Jodhpur where per cent plant cover increased from 4.8 to 7.42% and forage yield, 28.3 to 29.8kg/ha after grazing [21].

In the same experimental paddocks at Chandan in Jaisalmer district of western India, phenological changes at monthly intervals were also recorded under different grazing pressures. Concurrently, palatability of species as and when the sheep bites was also noted for one hour each during morning (8-10AM), noon (12-2PM) and evening (4-8PM). Results revealed that vegetative phase was shortened and flowering, fruiting and seed set occurred earlier in perennial like Lasiurus sindicus as the grazing pressure increased [22]. Thus compressing the vegetative phase emerged as a mechanism of evading grazing pressure in this perennial grass. Reverse was noted in all the ephemeral species. Vegetative phase was prolonged with increasing intensity of grazing and thus seed setting was delayed in ephemeral species Aristida funiculata, Indigofera cordifolia, Indigofera linifolia and Corchorus tridense. This shift in phenophase could be related to their relative palatability. Since annual species germinate and grow with their fresh foliage during the monsoon rains, annuals (due to fresh foliage) were eaten in preference over the perennials. This preferred removal of annuals due to their palatability, if continued unabated, would finally remove them completely due to overgrazing. In fact, such a shift in phenophases, induced by increase in grazing intensity, can effectively be used as indicator of beginning of deterioration of rangeland health. And this becomes the start point of desertification in grazing lands in deserts. Moderate grazing is therefore, desirable for maintaining range health for sustainable grazing. On the other hand, it is also important to realize this potential of monsoon ephemerals as grazing material as by way of corollary these can be sown and then cut, not grazed, and fed to animals.

In order to further understand the role of herbaceous annual and seasonal vegetation, another grazing study was undertaken for two consecutive years in Lasiurus sindicus dominated protected grazingland at experimental area at Chandan in Jaisalmer district Kumar et al. [23]. There were five grazing treatments:T-1: Control (No grazing); T-2: Optimum carrying capacity with supplemental feed (6 sheep grazing); T-3: Optimum carrying capacity without supplemental feed (6 sheep grazing); T-4: Double the carrying capacity with supplemental feed (12 sheep grazing) and T-5: Double the carrying capacity without supplemental feed (12 sheep grazing). Results revealed that irrespective of supplemental feed, 70-80% of L. sindicus cover declined in paddock with double the carrying capacity (T-4 and T-5). This study again proved findings in previous para i.e., preferential consumption of seasonal and low perennials such as Ochthochloa compressa and annual Cenchrus biflorus in monsoon and post-monsoon. Grazing animals did not eat perennial species as if these have been left by them for future consumption when these ephemerals dry, die and no more available say, after December. This postponement in consumption of perennials effectively prolonged the duration of range-use. On the other hand, as the grazing pressure increased, biomass declined by 80% in two years i.e., from 461.5 (T-2), 306.6 (T-3), 450.5 (T-4) and 341,1 (T-5) kgha-1 to 70.3 (T-2), 29.6 (T-3), 28.7 (T-4) and 15.4 (T-5) kgha-1. In rain driven ecosystem of arid lands, even a small variation in the quantum, spread and timing of rainfall causes major effect on vegetation composition [24]. These have cascading effects making the whole system vulnerable to drought and adversely affecting sustainable productivity of the rangeland ecosystem [25]. This study thus, concluded that rainy season ephemerals by way of their preferential consumption give temporary or seasonal rest to perennials like L. sindicus enabling it to grow and recover. Vetter et al. [26] while discussing such differences in composition, structure, diversity and forage production potential of vegetation under different grazing intensities reasoned that these ephemerals can draw water from whole soil profile throughout the growing seasons where as climax grasses withdraw water from deeper layers of 2-5m during droughts [24].

Thus, resource utilization is partitioned to be optimally used among ephemerals and perennials resulting in better growth of both these components. Consequently, grazable material becomes available from the same grazing land for a longer duration and that imparts resilience to the grazing land system. Fynn [27] also reported that short, nutritious grasses in functional wet seasons habitats facilitate optimum intake of nutrients and energy for lactating females, for optimal calf growth and building body stores. Heterogeneity in vegetation composition due to ephemerals was also emphasized for achieving optimum grazing use by [28]. Evidently, Kumar et al. [23] in their study also related the spatial patterns created by patches of seasonal vegetation in the landscape and temporal patterns of biomass (= productivity) availability of seasonals in post monsoon and perennials in winter and summer with long term sustainability. Fynn [27] also concluded that grazing based on spatial and temporal variability in forage quality and quantity would be more sustainable. Nutritionally also, seasonal vegetation having higher crude protein than perennial grasses [29] meets the nutritional needs of the livestock. Utilizing above mentioned spatial and temporal patterns was also recommended as best range utilization strategy by [27]. But Kumar et al. [23] found that free range animals in monsoonal rangelands themselves do selective grazing based on seasonal availability of biomass i.e., they graze annuals first (August to November) and then perennials (December to April) and both litter and perennials in summer. A mix of cattle, goat and sheep would further optimize to increase range utilization.

Ephemerals/seasonals, therefore, not only provide heterogeneity and complexity to the grazing landscape, they also complement the nutritional needs as well as prolong the period of range use thereby delaying the onset of degradation. This spatial heterogeneity imparted by seasonal vegetation in an overall matrix of perennial tall grasses and woody perennials need to be managed optimally by grazing management of both seasonals and perennials. It was therefore, concluded “…. that

a) arid rangelands have intrinsic heterogeneity in species composition,

b) this mix of seasonal and perennials (= heterogeneity) is ably supported by the landscape by way of partitioning of resources,

c) lifecycle patterns of seasonal fits well to meet the nutritional needs of livestock and

d) grazing of such seasonal vegetation thus helps sustain perennial tussocky rangelands for longer range-use …”.

Such a functional role of ephemerals as revealed in the aforementioned studies in respect of grazing animals has also been found in an entirely different context by Bhardwaj et al. [30] who reported the importance of ephemerals in enhancing the population of critically endangered bird, the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps with a remaining population of ~200 birds (IUCN 2011). Biased habitat preference by Great Indian Bustard for new closures which were ploughed instead of old ones prompted a detailed vegetation analysis by [30] amongst different landscape units. The newly ploughed sited had regeneration of lot of ephemerals in the ensuing rains compared to the parched sites in the old ones. This led to devise a very simple management strategy of ploughing the open areas in mosaic pattern for breaking the crust laden hard surface without disturbing the Lasiurus sindicus and other perennial grasses, shrubs and trees of old closures annually just before onset of rains. Selective ploughing brought out the stored seed bank of annuals on to the surface enabling them to use moisture of the very first rain and germinate to grow further in subsequent rains. In fact, such slight amount of disturbance is known to increase diversity in all dry land ecosystems and is a desirable management intervention for the conservation of critically endangered Great Indian Bustard.

Ephemerals as Crop Area Weeds

Table 7: Dry matter yield of different crops and their weeds in Guhiya catahment. (Source: Shankar and Kumar, 1984).

Ephemerals appear to be out of place in crop lands and hence called weeds. Desert farmers know the utility of these seasonals as valuable forage. Quite often, especially the monsoon ephemerals are collected, air dried and stored in livestock yard for future used. Heaps of such air dried palatable ephemerals are stacked species wise as an effective strategy of escaping drought by way of providing feed to livestock during ensuing drought when crops fail. It becomes therefore, imperative to assess the quantity of such ephemeral forage in crop fields. A study to assess their biomass revealed that weed biomass often far exceeded their companion crop [31] i.e., their biomass was 2 to 4 times more than crop (Table 7). These are mostly palatable weeds giving 655 to 1564kg/ ha of dry matter depending upon preponderance of weeds. Thus seasonal ephemerals as weed contribute immensely to livestock feed but estimates are not available to assess their contribution at landscape level.

Role of Ephemerals in Rehabilitation of Mine Spoils

Though perennials are preferred for rehabilitation of degraded lands like mine spoils, but once the seeds bank is added to soil, annuals by virtue of their repid turn over, play a key role in accelerating process of rehabilitation. Kumar et al. [32] reported as many as 14 self regenerated annuals, equivalent to that of perennials in freshly rehabilitated plots of gypsum mine spoil in Barmer, an extreme arid district in western Rajasthan. These provided organic matter to soil facilitating growth of shrubs and trees. These can be therefore, easily employed to grow and prepare niche for future generations of plants. In another rehabilitation programme for backfilled areas after lignite mining in Barmer (1999-2004), surface layering of local soil and murram was carried out and then planted with eight different tree species, seven shrub species and one perennial grass [33]. Monitoring the self- regenerated natural vegetation in these treatment blocks revealed that irrespective of treatments, all blocks had immense regeneration of ephemerals that constituted 46-48% of total self regenerated species that varied from 39 to 75 species in five rehabilitated blocks. Appearance and growth of nearly half of regenerated vegetation being ephemeral proved their crucial role in accelerating the process of rehabilitation by way of organic matter build up and its rapid turn over that later on supports growth of other companion planted species. Evidently, understanding the role of ephemerals as organic matter builder, succession facilitator and ecological moderator deserve deeper studies so as to optimize cost of such programmes and achieve faster system recovery in reclamation of degraded and drastically disturbed lands, especially in arid regions.

Ephemerals as Medicinal Plants

A survey of ethno medicinal plants in 128 villages in four arid districts in western India namely Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner and Jodhpur from year 2001 to 2005 revealed 131 taxa of medicinal importance (Kumar and Parveen, 2004). Of these, herbs were maximum i.e. 52 (39.69%) followed by 29 shrubs (22.13%), 25 trees (19.84%), 11 climbers (8.39%), 9 grasses (6.87%), 3 sedges (2.29%) and 1 fungus (0.67%). Of the total species, 70 were perennials (53.43%) and 61, ephemeral or annuals including crops (46.57%). These values broadly match the Raunkiarian’s life forms in this desert in which nearly 49% are therophytes or annuals and 51% are other life forms which are perennials Mertia and Bhandari [35]. The 29 ephemeral medicinal species reported from wild grazing lands in this study are :Abutilon indicum, Achyranthus aspera, Amaranthus viridis, Argemone mexicana, Blepharis sindica, Cenchrus biflorus ,Cleome viscosa , Corchorus depressus, Corchorus tridens, Cucumis callosus, Dicoma tomentosa, Digera muricata, Eclipta alba, Eragrostis minor, Euphorbia granulatae, Fagonia indica, Heliotropium marifolium, Indigofera cordifolia, Mollugo cerviana, Mukia maderaspatana, Neurada procumbens, Pedalium murex, Phyllanthus fraternus, Polygonum plebieum, Portulaca oleracea, Pulicaria crispa, Sisymbrium irio, Solanum surattense and Tribulus terrestris. Almost all of these species come up naturally during monsoonal rains and hence are collected from wild and marketed. Many of these are immensely useful and are species of trade both nationally and internationally i.e., Tribulus terrestris, Pedalium murex, Solanum surratense, Fagonia indica, Blepharis linearifolia, Phyllanthus fraternus, and Eclipta alba. Thus these nature’s herbals enhance the cash flow in the hand of farmers. But in view of their increasing demand, a need is felt to domesticate and bring them into cultivation so as to save their native gene pools in the wild from being lost. This will also diversify the cropping system and add to the sustainable livelihood of desert dwellers.

Epilogue

Ephemeral/seasonal species are important herbage component of natural grazing lands, pasture and croplands. They are the only plants available even after the perennials are removed. Persistence to withstand pressures and re-appear once the favorable situations occur, make them highly resilient component of desert vegetation. Their life cycle strategy is also more suited to adverse temporal sequential stresses caused by climatic aberrations. Plasticity in phenological stages exhibited by ephemerals during variable grazing treatments not only provides adaptive edge to survive in harsh desertic conditions but also imparts sustenance to the whole grazing land ecosystem. By way of providing heterogeneity in species composition, ephemerals prolong the duration of grazing land use and also complements the nutritional needs of livestock. This aspect has helped to design conservation strategy of critically endangered Great Indian Bustard in its native landscape by way of provisioning of foraging material by just enabling buried ephemerals seeds to come up on surface through ploughing and then germinating during rains.

They contribute up to 500-600kg/ha dry matter without any management in natural conditions. Grown properly under managed conditions, their yield can be enhanced many folds. This can be achieved by providing moisture just before flowering so that vegetative phase is prolonged, thus capitalizing its ecological properties to further increase its yield to double or treble. Experiments are however needed to confirm whether these could be used as multicut fodder crop in sole or as intercrop. In view of rich ephemeral flora in the Indian desert, we are advantageously placed to select a few chosen species for testing their potential as future livestock feed either raw or as feed cake. Not merely a source of livestock feed, these grazing lands are also cradle of as many as 61 herbal ephemerals which are being used by people as traditional medicine; many of them having immense trade potential that can add to the kitty of local farmers. In the ecological management of mine spoiled lands, ephemerals as an adjunct to perennial species have proved their potential as a cheaper and faster rehabilitation material.

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Lupine Publishers | Market Structure Conduct and Performance of Live Cattle in Borana Pastoral area: The Case of Moyalle District, Oromiya Regional State

   Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Abstract

The Borana Pastoralists are known as major cattle supplier of cattle for domestic and international markets, yet the benefits they get from the sector is said to be minimal. This study, therefore, was initiated to identify market chain actors and their function in the market, investigate the structure Conduct and performance of live cattle in Moyalle District of Borana Zone. Both primary and secondary data were used for this study. Primary data were collected from 223 sampled pastoralists, 25 traders and 14 brokers. Before the household survey, key informant interview and focus group discussions were conducted using 10 producers, 5 traders and 3 brokers. Descriptive Statistics and qualitative data analysis techniques were employed to analyze the cattle market structure, conduct and performance. The result shows that producers, brokers, traders and consumers were the major cattle market actors. Two major channels identified in the area were formal and informal. Both the channels are also characterized by their sub-channels.

Among the formal channels, formal market channel is identified as the preferable marketing channel with better total final price share for producers. Regarding the market structure, cattle market is known to be dominated by few traders. Although the degree of competition varies, cattle market structure varies across cattle type marketed from loose oligopoly to strict oligopoly. This shows that only few traders share the majority of market share and earn abnormal profit. Besides, cattle market is characterized by entry barriers such as distant market point, high trucking cost, seasonality of marketing, information asymmetries and unfriendly relation between actors. These imperfect nature of the market in the district provoked informal trade. As the pastoralists mainly depend on cattle for their livelihoods and other cultural values, traders take advantage of the asymmetric market information towards them. Although it varies with the type of cattle, the larger share of the market gains remains with end of traders thereby limiting the pastoralists a chance to realize the economic gains in cattle production. Hence, linking producers to market and its benefits, establishing in cooperatives and development of infrastructure could play a significant role for optimization of the sector productivity.

Keywords: Cattle; Market chain; Pastoralists; Structure; Conduct performance

Introduction

Marketing is the answer to the underdevelopment of developing countries. When adopted and practiced, marketing will help to develop appropriate technologies as developing nations provide for the needs of the people and enhance their standard of living, create job opportunities, wealth for entrepreneurs, a means towards affording education and enjoyment of leisure [1]. In the Borena Area, cattle predominantly flow in a South to North direction, regardless of their market channel [2]. However, the Borena pastoralists are known as the major cattle suppliers for domestic consumption and international trade export, till yet they could not able to be benefited from the sector due to impediments. The lengthy marketing process, high transaction cost, informal cattle trade and the like has been one of major obstacles that caused country to lose a lot of foreign currency. In addition to these, over exploitation of brokers, weak and unfriendly linkage in between the major marketing actors, lack of market-oriented cattle production is some of the main challenges.

To improve the competitiveness of cattle in pastoralist area cost-effective marketing channels and coordinated market chains, which reduce the transaction costs among different actors along the chain are crucial [3]. Majority of cattle marketing information in the pastoralist level is outdated, unreliable and as the result it couldn’t able to provide the real picture of the economic contribution of pastoralists sector for the country economy and the community engaged in the sector. More over these, the critical problem in cattle marketing sector stands in the course of formulating appropriate policies and procedures for the purpose of increasing marketing efficiency in the sector. For the pastoralists’ community undertaking research on structure conduct and performance of cattle is believed to enhance its productivity by locating economical cattle marketing routes. Available evidence shows that limited numbers of investigations have been made on local and regional cattle markets in pastoralist area and the market chain is dominated by many brokers at primary, secondary and terminal markets [4].

Most studies of market chain tend to focus on market chain of the cattle at aggregate level than dealing the market chain of individual cattle types. The present studies try to link this gap by disaggregating the cattle into various types to see the market chain opportunities and problems for each type of cattle separately. Therefore, this study will provide relevant information with respect to the value chain of various cattle types by

a) Identifying the major market actors and their function of cattle market,

b) Identifying the marketing channels,

c) Examining the market structure, conduct and performance.

Methodology

The Borana administrative zone is situated in Ethiopia’s Oromia regional state and located in Southern part at about 570 km (Yabalo town) from Addis Ababa. The capital of Borana zone is Yabello [5]. The Borana zone is made up of 13 districts, divided between two agro-ecological zones, the semi-arid lowlands to the south and the more humid lands at higher altitudes to the north [6]. Moyale is one of the Woredas in the Oromia regional state. It is located 770 km south of Addis Ababa. The Woreda has an area of 14,810 km2 and it is divided into 18 kebele 2 of which are located in Moyale town [7]. It splits the two countries: the larger portion being in Ethiopia (in the Oromia Region and Somalia region) and the smaller in Kenya (i.e. the capital of the Moyale district). It is a busy market for both informal and formal trade of food commodities and livestock [8]. In this study both secondary and primary data was used from different sources. Journals, books, proceedings, CSA and ESAP publications were secondary data sources that used in the study. Primary data sources include Pastoral household interview, traders’ interview, brokers interview and key informant interview.

The study used commodity chain analysis (CCA), which involves mapping the market chains, involved in particular production sectors, different types of activity, geographical location and actors in different roles at different levels. The major market costs considered in the study include, cost transporting, brokering cost, marketing levies and taxes imposed by local authorities [9]. For this particular study two stage sampling techniques was used. Factors like number of live-stock kept, income difference, gender, age of pastoralists, major function of actors in cattle marketing, proximity to major marketing centers and other important economic variables were important issued while selecting the representative households in the districts. The producers interviewed in the study were pastoralists. Both traders and brokers were selected purposely and interviewed. The random probability sampling techniques was used for selecting the representative producer households from the area.

Two stages sampling technique was used for selection of pastoralists Kebele identification that made through secondary data of pastoralists development office. Three Kebeles from the pastoralist area were considered in the survey. Respondent sample size per each Kebele was determined proportionally to the number of total households in the area. The sample size determination techniques employed was Rule of Thumb Techniques that estimate by using the following formula:100% for 0-100 populations,10% for101-1,000 populations, 5% for 1,001-5,000 poulations,3% for 5,001-10,000 population and 1% for more than 10,000 respectively [10]. Based on this technique the sample size of pastoralists household interviewed from respective kebels, Maddo, Maddo Miggo and Laga Sure were 100, 63 and 60 respectively. The survey study at woreda level considered 167 male (74.9%) and 56(25.1) female household heads. The sample size of male and female household heads interviewed in Maddo kebele was 78(78%) and 22(22%).

The number male and female respondents interviewed in Laga Sure kebele was 45(75%) and 15(25%). From whole interviewed respondents in Maddo Miggo Kebele 69.8% (44) was male and 30.2% (19) female. The sample size of traders and brokers was 25 and 14. Descriptive statistical analysis such as mean, mode, percentage and standard deviation of important economic variables considered in collecting information was used to analyze data. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social science (SPSS Verstion.20) and Excel 2007. Besides, qualitative data obtained from focus group discussion, key informant interviews and observations were categorized into similar themes, looked for relationships and interpreted.

Results and Discussions

Socio-Economic Characteristics of Pastoralists

The average age of the Pastoralists household head was 42. However, it ranges in between 20 and 81. The majority of them (96.9%) are in economically active age group in the age range of 20 and 65 years. The family size distribution Table 1 shows that the average family size of Moyalle pastoralists is 7 but it ranges between 2 and 25. The majority of the households have medium and large family size. Those households with very large family size are characterized by polygamous family. The small family size households were young couples. Table 2 revealed that 81.2 percent of sampled households did not attend formal education whereas; the proportion of pastoralist household who attended formal education was 18.8%. The distribution of pastoralist households with respect to formal education attendance shows that less than one fifth they attended formal education. However, study by [11] in Yabello district shows that the proportion of pastoralists who attended formal education is by far greater (41.7 %).

Table 1: Family size of sampled producers.

Table 2: Education level of Pastoralist household head.

This could be due to the fact that the Moyalle District pastoralists area are less accessed to market capacity development services and infrastructures in relation to other districts in the Borana zone. The majority of households owned cattle in the range between 4 - 12 (45.29%) cattle per head. These are poor category households. This is closely followed by medium category households 43% and own 13 - 43 heads of cattle. The rich and very rich households’ own cattle heads that range from 44-56 and 57-109 respectively. However, the proportion of these households is less that 3 percent. Other study by [12], however, revealed that from the total respondents’ pastoralists in Yabello area about 7 percent were reported to be rich, 10 percent medium, 17 percent poor, and 66 percent were destitute. The socioeconomic profile of cattle traders shows that all (100%) of them were male with a mean age 39.44 years that range between 23 and 60 years. The result shows that all the cattle traders are in the bracket of active age category.

Unlike the pastoralist’s category, the proportion of the traders who attended formal education is nearly two third (64%). This means that about 36% cattle traders were illiterate, 20% attended primary school (grade 1 to 4) and 36% attended junior school (grade 5 to 8) and 8% attended secondary high school (grade 9 up to 10) respectively. This implies that in cattle trading, the importance of education cannot be over-emphasized, for it determines information dissemination and technology adoption among marketers in diverse socio-economic and biophysical environment [13]. Contrary to their education profile, the majority of the traders (52 percent) were with trading experience of less than five years. This reveals due to the infrastructure and development of policy that is relevant to cattle trade, currently attracting more traders. The study results (Tables 3 & 4) observed confirmed also that the mean trading experience for sampled traders in the area was 7.64 years. The general trading experience of interviewed traders ranges between 2 to 20 years. The percent of cattle marketers that had marketing experience ranging from 2 to 5 years, 6 to 9 years and 10 to 13 were 52%, 12% and 16% respectively. The proportion of cattle marketers that had marketing experience of 14 to 17 years and 18 to 20 were 12% and 8% respectively. Hence, the results revealed that majority of cattle traders in the area are highly experienced.

Table 3: Cattle ownership with respect to wealth Classification.

Table 4a: Years of Schooling for traders.

Table 4b: Experience of cattle traders.

Structure Conduct and Performance of Cattle Marketing

Market Structure of Cattle

a) Major Actors and Their Function in Cattle Market

Cattle market structure in Moyalle district of Borana zone is characterized by diverse actors including pastoralists, local collectors, brokers, traders, hotels and restaurants. Each actor has its own function. Pastoralists are the first actors of in the market chain of cattle. Some of major duties and responsibilities of pastoralists include supplying healthy and quality cattle. Brokers are important actors in the market chain of cattle and they play facilitation of market process, market information provision, price setting, and acting as delegates of traders such as making agreement between sellers and buyers [14]. Traders’ role is purchasing, price setting, giving final market price, controlling marketing process and market information provision.

b) Major Channels

With respect to marketing channel, both formal and informal cattle marketing channels exist in the area. As traders pay taxation fee for respected organization in the chain, cattle traveled to central Ethiopia referred as formal market channel. But, Cattle traders those trek cattle from Ethiopia to Kenya do not paying tax and transport through unknown route, the specific market chain defined as informal market channel. Both channels are dominant as in relation to proximity and long-lived history, pastoralists are accustomed to informal market channel. The formal market channel is a newly developed one and it has different sub channels.

Channel I:Pastoralist-Broker-Small Trader-Formal exporter. This cattle market channel is one of formal market channel and practiced by few pastoralists. Here, pastoralists sell to brokers and brokers sell to small traders. The small traders purchase from brokers and resale to formal exporters that come from central Ethiopia cities. Due to infrastructural development and relatively better security in current years, this market channel developed newly in the district. This sort of cattle market channel is experienced by about 5% pastoral households and observed as new opportunities.

Channel II: Pastoralist-Broker-Collectors-Informal Exporter. In this cattle market channel pastoralists sell their cattle to brokers and brokers sell to collectors. Here, collectors purchase cattle from brokers and resell to informal exporters. This market channel has long life history in the district and used to be the only route of cattle marketing before five to ten years ago. This channel is experienced by about 46% of pastoralists’ households in the district.

Channel III: Pastoralist-Collectors-Informal Exporter. This cattle market channel is one of usual market channel. Brokers are not used as mediator in but the small/medium traders in this market channel purchase from producers directly and resell to informal exporters. The proportion of sampled pastoral households accustomed to use this sort of cattle market channel amounts to 4%.

Channel IV: Pastoralist-Brokers-formal Exporter. In this channel the producers sell cattle to brokers and brokers sell cattle to formal exporters and experienced by 2% of pastoralists. This cattle market chain was also identified as newly introduced chain to the area. This sort of market chain should be appreciated and have to be due attention to boost production and productivity of cattle [15]. Here, producers undertake cattle marketing through broker mediating process to other formal exporters and consumers. Ethiopian universities and air lines institutions that come seldom to the area are some listed formal cattle buyers.

Channel V: Pastoralist-broker-informal trader. This market channel is one of channel that identified as informal. Here, Pastoralists sell cattle to brokers and brokers sell to informal exporters that come from Kenya. The proportion of interviewed pastoralists that are engaged in this type of cattle market amounts 2%.

Channel VI: Pastoralists-Other Pastoralists. In this cattle market channel pastoralists sell cattle to other pastoralists and it is known for restocking and usually undertaken around farm gate. The major aim of this market chain is replacing the aged cattle. The proportion of pastoralists that depend on this type of cattle market channel amounts to 12%. Cattle category marketed in this channel comprised of calves, heifer and bulls. Pastoralist households undertake marketing activity in this route by friendship, kinship and neighborhood pattern.

Channel VII: Pastoralists-Broker-Festival Consumer. This channel is one of the oldest and informal institutional based channels. Here the producers sell cattle to other producers, consumer traders, urban dwellers and newcomers from surrounding highlands. The purpose of buyers of cattle is for festival consumption. The proportion of pastoralists households take part in this cattle market channel is 14% of interviewed pastoralists.

Channel VIII: Pastoralists-Broker-Butchers. This is also referred as newly developed value addition channel that formed due to existence of smuggling activity and settlement of peoples from other areas for this activity. Out of interviewed respondents Pastoralist 15% of the households of sell cattle to brokers and brokers resell the cattle to butchers. this is also referred as newly developed cattle market channel that created in recent years as new market opportunities due to mobilization of peoples to the surrounding and smuggling activity that become job opportunities for majorities. This result tells about how the cattle market chain complicated by lengthy routes that hinder not to exploit the resource at pastoralists district by producers and tilted the market toward informal trade. This study calls for systematic intervention for cutting off unnecessary market route and adopting legalized market channel toward the vicinity African countries. As indicated in the (Table 5) above (5) the market structure shows distinctive features according to cattle type marketed. Market structure for oxen, heifers and calves trade is tight oligopoly but it is a loose oligopoly for cows and bulls trade. Since heifers and calves are often marketed among pastoralists and rarely by informal traders and not by formal traders, the market structure is tight oligopoly.

Table 5a: Socioeconomic characteristics of traders (N=25).

Table 5b: Summary of Market structure for Cattle Trading.

In addition to these, calves are unable to trek long distance in the marketing route, they are not preferred by market actors. The market structure for oxen trade tight oligopoly, because pastoralists supply at bull and oxen are usually demanded only in limited festivals. The implication of this is that market actors want ox at bull stage in order to exploit value added in the chain and easily trek/truck the bulls. Consequently, traders in the area undertake marketing activity having been closely creating market relation so as to exploit benefits that belongs to producers. In addition to these, bulls trade encompasses various market actors such as informal traders, formal traders, hotels and restaurants and festival consumers, the market structure is relatively loose oligopoly. The cow trade is also including various market actors such as pastoralists and informal exporters; its market structure is loose oligopoly. This point out that tight oligopoly reduces competition and the entire market remains a “few traders game” where created wealth does not flow to all the beneficiaries in equitable ratio. Arguably, it should again be noted that failure to enjoy such benefits may distort market operations and eventually lead to collapse of the cattle production system. This calls for systematic government intervention in the sectors that could mitigate imbalance of trade benefits and help to optimize productivity through market linkage formation, adoption of value addition and development, update market information provision and cooperative formation.

c) Entry and Exit Conditions in the Cattle Market

The long market distance from pastoral areas to central towns of Ethiopia and the related high trucking cost, high capital demand, institution-based marketing and information asymmetries are some of the major entrance and exit barriers in cattle trade in the area. The number of cattle supplied to market in holidays, religious festivals and weeding occasions are also higher than that of other seasons. In order to undertake marketing activity directly; it is must to speak local language. So as to take part in cattle trade, it is also must secure large amount capital for purchasing cattle, trucking and trekking.

Market Conduct

Market Conduct refers to the strategies adopted by a player as a way of adjusting to the market conditions in order to fully enjoy the market benefits. Notably, it includes mechanisms such as price setting and terms of payment.

a) Price Setting Mechanisms

The price setting activity of cattle in pastoralist area is known to be accomplished by various actors in the market. About 62% of pastoralists confirmed that price of cattle is set by brokers based on initial price given by sellers and final price from buyers. The proportion of pastoralists recognized determination of price by buyers based on central market information, by brokers based on central area information and sellers by their own respectively is 22%, 10% and 6%. This shows that market actors had different level of influence in the role they played for setting price. It is observed that every aspect of price setting mechanism majorly is controlled by traders. This means that price setting in cattle market is often skewed toward traders and brokers. The result indicates that traders undertake non-price competitions including cattle type, trade experience, personality, financial capacity and language. The implications of this market structure are few potential traders’ accounts for large market share, market dominance by these top four traders, interdependency and collusion possible.

b) Terms of Payment for Producers

Both the household survey and key informant interview reveals that the cattle marketing by pastoral households has been undertaken in inform of cash or hand by hand currency. The proportion of producers who indicated cattle marketing carried out in the form of direct cash payment is 96%. The remaining 4% of the pastoralists marketed both in credit and hand in hand cash payment before three to five years. This justified that almost all producers market their cattle inform of direct cash transfer in current years. The main reason for ceasing of cattle trade in form of credit from previous years to current is loss of certain capital due to credit. This means that market actors in the area assured that before five-year certain informal traders had purchased cattle in form of credit did not repay the credit back. This phenomenon had ceased credit marketing system in the district.

Market Performance

Market performance refers to the impact of structure and conduct as measured in terms of variables such as prices, costs, and volume of output. Analysis of the level of marketing margins and their cost components could help to evaluate the impact of the structure and conduct characteristics on cattle market performance. The marketing margin of cattle is the difference between the revenue from the sales of cattle and the costs incurred in running the market operation. The net marketing margin of cattle (NMM) is also the percentage over the final price earned by the intermediary as his net income once his marketing costs are deducted and is one of the best tools to analyze performance of cattle market. Marketing margin was calculated taking the difference between producers and formal exporter or informal trader prices. Mathematically, producers share expressed as: PS=Pp/Pt = 1-MM/Pt where PS=producers share, Pt=price of traders, and MM= market margin.

In general, producer’s share of final price in formal channel higher than that of informal, which points out that formal route is preferable for them. Since traders and brokers obtain relatively better market margin in informal route, it is difficult to compete for formal traders with informal traders in the district. In contrary to free market economy, market concentration ration and market margin estimated for cattle market shows oligopolistic nature. It therefore means that the formal or informal market cattle traders do not bare full cost involved in the market thereby leading relatively low marginal costs. This is to mean that the cattle market is disintegrated in such a manner that price levels does not relay from the cattle keepers to the terminal market traders. Indeed, it is observed that the principle of free market through bargaining is distorted once a new market entrant is discovered. For example, buying at a relatively fair price requires one to have known the local language at the farm gate market, security and cattle type marketed (non-price competition).

This means that without close relation with the market brokers; one is subjected to price discrimination. Since the market is flooded by brokers at all the chain terminals; it is very difficult to assess the efficient market price and general information. It was observed that there exists larger number of market brokers both for different live cattle and in many cases; the brokers hold much needed information so as maximize on the commissions. Monopoly market structure violates the principle of equity between the traders and the pastoralists. This is because the larger share of the market gains remains with end of chain traders thereby denying pastoralists a chance to realize the economic gains in cattle production.

Comparison of Market Margin Across Cattle Type and Marketing Channels

The market performance of cattle marketed varies across cattle type marketed and the type of channel used. The empirical result in Tables 2 & 6 indicates that the cow traders earn highest net market margin but, calve traders earn lowest net market margin in formal channel. The level of net market margin earned in informal channel is highest for ox traders, while it is lowest for calves. The proportion of producer share of final cattle price from informal market channel is 18% lower than that of formal. This indicates that it is advisable for producers to market cattle though formal channel, while it is good for trader to use informal channel that is well developed in value addition practices and linked to the largest east Africa market point, Nairobi, which by its own make difficult to compete for formal traders with informal channel that has higher market margin (Table 6).

Table 6: Comparison of Market Margin across cattle type and marketing channels.

Conclusion

Almost all market structure of cattle in the area shows the noncompetitive nature. The market concentration ratio for top four cattle trader is ranged between 43.03 and 95.02. The estimated HI index is between 1013.39 and 2702.31. This concentration ratio indicates that the market structure of cattle is imperfect, and the competition is among the few traders. This few large traders share majority of market share and earn abnormal profit. This could be one of the suspected reasons for producers for shifting from cattle to camel and small ruminants and low productivity of the sector. Hence, it is must for systematic government intervention to minimize exploitation benefits by trader’s that belongs to producers through cooperative establishment. For each cattle type there are formal and informal market channels. Among the channels the first formal channel was identified as the preferable marketing channel that has higher and better total final price share for producers. The monopoly nature of the terminal cattle market denies the efficient market principles that forces producers not to optimize productivity.

The analysis of the marketing costs and margin revealed that brokers incurred the lower marketing cost and traders the higher marketing cost in all cattle type. The market cost of trader and broker in informal market channel is higher than formal. Marketing margin of traders and brokers is different along different channels. Traders and brokers get relatively better profits in informal channels. This could be the reason for most traders to participate in informal channel. The producers’ share of final of cattle is relatively better in formal channel for producers. The study indicated that it is better for producers to sale cattle at formal channel, where they could optimize their benefits through cooperative and reduced transaction costs. By summing up, contrary to free market economy, market concentration ratio and margin estimated shows oligopolistic nature. It therefore means that the formal or informal market traders mainly for cattle do not bare full cost involved in the market thereby leading relatively low marginal costs.

By intuition therefore, it means that the cattle market is disintegrated in such a manner that price levels does not relay from the cattle keepers to the terminal market traders. The monopoly power in this case lies with the informal traders who are at the end of the chain. Since the pastoralists purely depend on cattle for their livelihoods, it was noted that traders take advantage of the market information to exploit the keepers through price discrimination. It was observed that there exists larger number of market brokers both for different live cattle and in many cases; the brokers hold much needed information so as maximize on the commissions. It is also observed that monopoly market structure violates the principle of equity between the traders and the pastoralists. This is because the larger share of the market gains remains with end of traders thereby denying pastoralists a chance to realize the economic gains in cattle production.

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