Lupine Publishers | Socioeconomic Determinants and Constraints to Small-scale Sheep Marketing in Gombe Metropolis, Gombe State Nigeria

   Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Abstract

The study focused on the socio-economic and challenges faced by small-scale sheep marketers in Gombe metropolis. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 91 sheep marketers from four markets. Data were collected using structured questionnaire and were analysed using descriptive statistics, farm budget and multiple regression models. The results revealed that, the mean age of sheep marketers was 40.59 years, 96.70% were males, 86.81% were married, with the majority (87%) had family size ranging from 1 – 20 persons, and had 17.68 mean years of experience. Also, the result revealed that 57.14% of the marketers combined sheep trading with other occupations to supplement their household earnings. Furthermore, the result revealed that purchasing cost for ram and ewe constituted 92.59% (₦ 27,615.38; $77.32) and 91.50% (₦ 23,793.96; $66.62) of the total costs respectively. Moreover, the result revealed average total return of ₦ 32,837.36 ($91.94) per head of animal was realized. The coefficient of multiple determination (R2) was 0.821; meaning that 82.10% variations in the total returns were influenced by the socio-economic characteristics included in the regression model. Also, the result revealed that, number of animals held per week was significant (P<0.01). Inadequate capital was critical; this was attributed to inadequate source of formal credits. Other market facilities such as clean environment and security were also lacking. However, improvement in the existing infrastructural facilities will help expand the present scale of operations. To improve efficiency, Governments and financial institutions should ensure funds in the form of loans are extended to the marketers.

Keywords: Socio economics; Determinants; Constraints; Sheep; Marketing; Gombe

Introduction

The demand for sheep and their products is destined to increase by more than 250% in Sub-Saharan Africa, especially the West Africa [1]. This will result from population growth, accelerated urbanization, incomes generation and consequently increased purchasing power of the populations. In economic terms, small ruminant rearing plays a major role in household incomes. With regards to poverty reduction [2]; reported that, about 675 million of world’s rural poor, including nearly 170 million in Sub-Saharan Africa are entirely or partially dependent on small ruminant’s production to feed them or obtain financial remuneration. According to [3], small ruminants are raised for various reasons such as; income generation, religious purposes, festive events, household consumption and hobby as well as security against crop failure. Moreover, small ruminants have often been found to be superior to saving money in the banks, because of the higher net annual returns [4]. Also, the skins of sheep and goats contributed significantly to the country’s economy through foreign exchange [5,6]. However, the performance of market is influenced by two major factors; the structural characteristics of the market; and the competitive behavior of actors in the marketing chain. The socio-economic variables could affect production directly by influencing the volume and level of output and the marketing aspect by controlling the storage, preservation and disposal of the farm produce to the ultimate consumer [7]. The important socioeconomic determinants of the marketers include; age, gender, marital status, household size, educational attainment, years of marketing experience, source and volume of initial capital, annual income, membership of union, etc [8].

However, agricultural marketing is bedeviled by a lot of problems; some of which arise because of the basic characteristics and problems of Nigeria’s Agriculture. Marketing constraints arise due to so many factors such as; limited knowledge and use of market information, lack of access to high-value reliable markets, socioeconomic factors, high transactional costs, inadequate property rights, lack of bargaining power, excesses of intermediaries and distance from the source of supply [9]. However, marketing constraints constitute the greatest barrier for small-scale operators when it comes to access high value markets, and these factors restrain farmers from making decisions to participate in the markets [10]. Therefore, overcoming these constraints is critical for small-scale farmers to access lucrative markets. It is worthwhile study to small ruminant to identify its production and marketing participants and as well as the constraints, to provide information that looks into the possible ways and means of increasing traders’ income through accumulating capital and enhancing productivity and marketing. To this effect, the study is therefore made to achieve the following specific objectives: (a) to describe the socio-economic characteristics of sheep marketers in the study area; (b) to ascertain the effect of socio-economic characteristics on total returns of sheep marketers in the study area; (c) to identify and describe the constraints to sheep marketing in the study area.

Research Methodology

The study area

Gombe metropolis is the principal commercial centre of Gombe State, serves as the State capital as well the Headquarters of Gombe Local Government Authority. Situated on longitude 11° 10´ E and latitude 10° 17´ N; and shares common boundaries with three local government areas of the state; Akko to the south-west, Yemaltu- Deba to the east and Kwami to the north-west covering an area of 5,200km2 [11]. Moreover, Gombe town is regarded a confluence city of economic activities, by its position as the meeting point for agrobusiness people from the surrounding States of Yobe, Borno, Taraba, Adamawa and Bauchi. This advantage, made the State vibrant in all respects of the economy [11]. According to [12], Gombe metropolis had human population of 268,536 in 2006; with a projection of 363,061 people in 2017. The inhabitants of Gombe metropolis are mostly traders, civil servants, small-scale farmers and other nonagricultural service providers [11]. The study area is characterised with a warm climate, having a mean diurnal temperatures of 35 °C to 40 °C during the hottest months of (March to May) and to about less than 30 °C during harmattan [12]. The area has two distinct seasons based on the amount of rainfall received; the dry season (November to April) and the wet/rainy season (May to October) with an average (850 mm) amount of rainfall received per annum in 110 to 125 days.

Sampling Procedure

Sampling and sample size

A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 91 sheep marketers. In stage I, Gombe metropolis was purposively selected because it is the commercial centre of the State, and also assumed to have contained majority of the target population for the study. In stage II the study area was delineated into two major sheep market districts; Gombe-north and Gombe-south and were purposively selected. In stage III, from each market district, two markets; Tikebabba and Tike-jauro-abare; Tike-pantami and Tike-nasarawo were purposively selected from Gombe-north and Gombe-south respectively. The choice was made because these markets were notably popular in sheep marketing in the State. In stage IV a total of 91 sheep marketers were selected using simple random sampling technique proportionate to the number of marketers in each market. This ensures that every member of the population has equal and independent chance of being selected [13]. However, in determining the sample size appropriate for this study, the [14] model was used, where 20% of the population was suggested. Therefore, according to this model, the appropriate sample size for this study was 91 sheep traders. A proportional allocation technique was then used to determine the number of sample from each market. For the purpose of this study, the proportion of the respondents from each market was determined using the formula below, as adopted by [15];

n_i=(p)*n/N ...(1)

Where;

n_i= proportional ratio of each market;

N = estimated target population;

n = sample size;

p = population of each market.

However, according to this model, the samples were randomly and proportionally selected based on the estimated population of traders in each of the selected markets. The distribution of the proportionately estimated sample size/sampling frame (91/456) of sheep marketers in Gombe metropolis were; Tike-babba (42/209); Tike-jauro-abare (15/74); Tike-pantami (23/116); Tike-nasarawo (11/57); obtained from the Gombe State Sheep and Goat Traders Association.

Method of Data Collection

Data for this study were collected from the primary sources using structured questionnaire; this was supported with personal interview in situations where the respondents did not understand the questions. Also, an informal in situ interviews noting responses and observing the marketing process was conducted simultaneously with the formal questionnaire administration.This allowed for generation of qualitative information which was not captured in the questionnaire. The questionnaire modules consisted of coded and open-ended questions made to collect information on socioeconomic variables; marketing variables as well as constraints. In addition, the questionnaire also allowed respondents discuss freely the particular marketing issues of concern to them.

Method of Data Analysis

There are many analytical tools available for use in research of this kind and the choice depends on the availability of data [14]. This section describes many techniques that were used in data analysis for this study. In this study, the descriptive statistics such means and percentage; farm budget and multiple linear regression models were used.

Models specification

The mean model used for the study was therefore expressed as follows, as adopted by [16];

x=Σfxi/Σf ...(2)

Where;

x = Mean of grouped data;

Σfxi = Sum of products of variables and frequencies;

Σf = Sum of all frequencies of variables.

To determine the total returns in sheep marketing the farm budget model was employed. Thus, costs-return analysis as described by [17,18] was achieved by the following relationships;

TC = TVC +TFC… (3)

TR = P x Q … (4)

Where;

TC = Total marketing costs (₦);

TVC = Total variable costs (₦);

TFC = Total fixed costs (₦);

TR = Total return (₦);

P = Unit price of sheep (₦);

Q = Number of sheep sold per week.

Moreover, the multiple liner regression model was used to estimate the cause, degree and effect relationship of some selected socio-economic variables and the total returns of sheep marketers. The model in its general form was specified as:

Y = f(X₁,X₂,X₃,X₄,X₅X₆X₇,...U_i)...(5)

Where;

Y = Estimated total return (₦),

X1 = Age (years),

X2 = Marital status (1=married; 0=otherwise),

X3 = Household size (number),

X4 = Initial capital (₦),

X5 = Number of animals hold per week

X6 = Marketing experience (years),

X7 = Educational level (1=primary, 0=otherwise)

Ui = Error term.

According to [14], the functional form of the multiple linear regression model is expressed in its explicit form as;

Y = b₀ + b₁ X₁ + b₂ X₂ + b₃ X₃ + b₄ X₄ + b₅ X₅ + b₆ X₆ + b₇ X₇ + U_i

Where;

b_o = constant

b₁–b₇ = regression coefficients

X₁ –X₇ = independent variables

Ui = error term.

Results and Discussion

Socio-economic characteristics of sheep marketers

Age: in marketing studies, the age of the respondents is an important factor as it may reflect on the level of efficiency of an individual market participant. Age is a variable which describes the stages of development of an individual, either young and/or old, measured in years. It is logical to think that an individual’s efficiency declines with increasing age [19]. According to [20] age is one of the factors that influence traders’ decision making in resource allocation, managerial ability and responsibilities. Similarly, [21] reported that, age is a pivotal characteristic that dictates the nature and extent of traders on how to carry out marketing activities. The study revealed that 39.56% of the sheep traders were within the age bracket of 30–39 years, followed by those within the age range of 40–49 years (27.47%), then those within the range of 20 – 29 years (13.19%), while those above 70 years accounted for only 4.4%; with the mean age of 40.59 years as shown in Table 1. This implies that sheep traders in Gombe metropolis were in their active stage and can take risks in anticipation of profit. Reference [20] obtained similar findings that mean age of cattle traders in Gombe metropolis was 42 years. Reference [21] asserted that these traders were still in their economic active ages; they were assumed innovative, adaptive, physically and mentally upright that would be able to withstand any tedious activity in traditional patterns of marketing.

Marital status: marital status simply means living single or in a matrimonial relationship which includes past and present positions such as single, married, divorce, widowed etc. [22,23]. Marital status distribution is very important as it helps to have idea of marketing participant’s devotion to the marketing process and the likely outcome of this on his/her business activities. Marital status of a person determines the degree of responsibility of that person in the society and the manners in which he/she will judicious allocate the scarce resources at his or her disposal [24]. However, Table 1 shows that majority (86.81%) of sheep marketers were married, 12.09% were single and 1.10% was divorced; meaning that marketing of sheep in the study area was dominated by married individuals. This agrees with the findings of [25], who found that 73.3% of the livestock marketers in central zone of Adamawa State were married [26]. Contended that, marriage is an important factor in the livelihood of individuals in the society as it is perceived to confer responsibility on individuals. Reference [27] also viewed married individuals have more responsibilities such as provision of foods, education, health and general well-being for the family. This might be reasons; the business is dominated by the married people unlike the case for the singles who may not likely have other people to take care of beside themselves.

Household size: this refers to the total number of individuals that live under same roof and feed from the same pot [23]. Household size is an important socio-economic variable that determines availability of family labour supply [28]. According to [20], households are those eating from one pot, and their consumption unit is equal to their production unit. It is reasonable to think that the larger the number of household members, the more the social commitments of the working adults who have the responsibility of providing the needs of the household. However, working adult depends on income from marketing activities to meet these social obligations; this can subsequently lead to more devotion to the income-generating activities they are engaged in. However, the results revealed that 42.86% had household size range of 1–10 persons, 43.95% had 11–20 persons, 12.09% had 21–30 persons, and only 1.1% that had household size of 31–40; with the mean household size of 13 persons per family (Table 1). The result agrees with the findings of [29] who reported that, the mean household size of most of marketers in northern Nigeria was 13 members per family. This implies that sheep marketers in Gombe metropolis had manageable family sizes which may add to them of extra helping hands in their ventures. Reference [30] opined that, household size determines the availability of family labour. But in contrast, [31] reported that large family size of cattle traders in Jos Plateau State had negative consequences, as the family heads bear heavy burden, which greatly undermined their investment expansion capacity.

Level of education: this improves the ability of traders to make wise marketing decisions; for most people and societies, formal education confers a wider range of opportunities and advantages for success in life compared with illiteracy [19]. It is assumed that educational attainment may lead to a better understanding of the market dynamics and thus better profit from the use of sound business principles and wise business decisions. However, Table 1 also depicts that sheep marketers with secondary education had the highest proportion (37.36%), closely followed by those that had other forms of education, such as Islamiyah and/or adult/nonformal education (30.76%). Moreover, those with primary education constituted 21.98%, and only 9.9% that had tertiary education. It may be concluded that all sheep marketers in the study area had at least one or the other form of education. This implies that they could acquire skills and knowledge, which is important in obtaining information about marketing, thereby increasing their revenues. Reference [32] reported similar findings and concluded that, level of education attained increases the ability of the marketers to understand and evaluate information on new techniques. Also, level of formal education is assumed to have implication on the extent to which the marketers will be pro-active and receptive to new ideas, and to find it relatively easier to deal with customers in the exchange process. Although, the ability to trade farm produce is not necessarily a function of one’s level of education, it however helps in the efficient performance of all the marketing functions such as; loan application, effective communication, record keeping and devising strategies on how to enhance efficient marketing activities and survive during different period by either diversifying or evolving new approach that ensure keeping him in business without necessary encountering discomfort losses.

Primary occupation: occupation is another important socio-economic variable. It indicates the status of respondent in sustaining their 1ivelihood [33]. As a component of socioeconomic status, occupation encompasses both income and educational attainment of an individual. Occupational status reflects the educational attainment required to obtain the job and income levels that vary with different jobs and within ranks of occupations [34]. The result of the study revealed that 42.86% of sheep marketers in Gombe metropolis claimed to have marketing as their primary occupation; 25.27% were crop producers; 13.19% engaged in some artisanal jobs; and 10.99% were civil servants (Table 2). This shows that most (57.14%) of the marketers were on part time basis, such that their involvement in other different types of occupations were to augment their household incomes [35]. This corroborates with the work of [36] who found that, majority of poultry producers were civil servants in Kwara State, indicating that the activity was on part time basis; implying that they do not depend on the business as the sole means of livelihood. This is in accordance with the assertion of [37], who found that it is common for some farm households to engage in other non-farm activities to complement their earnings. Moreover, [38] found occupational distribution of gum-arabic marketers in Borno State, and revealed that majority (71%) were farmers. This was also in agreement with the findings of [15], who reported that majority of households in sub Saharan Africa, engaged in more than one occupation. Also in accordance with [39], who reported that small-scale agro-business could be successfully combined with other vocations to ensure continuous and stable flow of incomes to the households.

Marketing experience: is a technical skill acquired in management of marketing activities with regards to certain conditions [22]. Years of experience are a measure of the period an individual marketer was involved; and plays a very important role in every human Endeavour. It is the basis of skills acquisition and success in business [40]. According to [41], marketing experience enables traders to adequately organize and manage their businesses in expectation of better profit. However, Table 1 reveals that, most (58.24%) of the sheep marketers in the study area had years of marketing experience range of 11–20; closely followed by 18.68% had 01–10 years of experience. The result further revealed the mean years of marketing experience was 17.68. This could infer that, the more the years of experience in sheep marketing the less the number of traders. This might be due to the fact that, some of the traders dropped out of the business because of age or inability to take and manage risk associated with marketing of sheep in the study area. But, [20,33,41], all opined that, marketers with long years of marketing experience were likely to understand the market situation thereby taking and managing risk and uncertainties in marketing activities in an attempt to generate more profit. In addition, the mean years of experience shows that the marketers were experienced enough in the business, a knowledge which would enable them understand the intricacies of the trade and thus be able to operate at a reduced marketing cost. One may conclude that sheep marketing in the study area was stable, sustainable and dependable since people stayed for long period of years. By implication, the business seems to be profitable, since nobody will spend several years in an unprofitable enterprise; this is due to the fact that experience creates behavioral confidence in the business and increases buyers – sellers’ engagement and stronger relationship.

Source of initial capital: capital is one of the most important components of any investment [42]. Its availability and accessibility tend to have great influence in the marketing process. However, agricultural marketing requires considerable investment of fund in the area of bulk purchases. Source of credit/loans for financing marketing activities could have a lot of influence on the performance of marketing, since interest rates usually influence the amount of money available for investment and the profit realized from marketing [43]. The result shows that, 81.32% of the marketers claimed to have sourced their initial capital from personal savings; 10.99% from family and friends; 5.49% from rotatory savings (adashe); 1.1% each from money lenders and cooperative societies. Furthermore, Table 1 shows that, none of the sheep marketers in Gombe metropolis that had sourced their initial capital from formal sources. Reference [44] and [15] inferred that transaction costs involved in obtaining loan and as well the delay in disbursement might be important factors that limit marketers’ access to formal source of capital. Reference [45] also stated that, capital is a very strong factor that is needed to acquire or develop any enterprise; its availability could determine the extent of production and marketing capacity. Reference [46] further noted that, access to formal source of capital could have prospect in improving the productivity of traders and contributing to uplifting the livelihoods of disadvantaged rural farming communities.

Number of animals held per week: the number of animals hold and or supplied to the market depends on the market demand; differences in the quantity offered and sold varied with the trader and also varied with the market. This may be as a result of variation in marketing experience, capital, number of participants, price determinants and other factors that determined size of the business [22]. The result reveals most (54.95%) of the sheep marketers could hold (supplied and sold) between 11 and 20 heads of sheep per week. Closely followed by those who held 1– 22 heads of sheep per week accounted for 24.18% of the marketers. The result further revealed that only 01.1% of the marketers that could supply and sell between 51 and 60 heads of sheep per week in the study area. The mean weekly number of animals supplied and sold was found to be 19 heads. According to [47], the demand for sheep as source of protein is significantly high; and also this had evidence of the appreciable profit made by the traders. However, the findings further revealed that most of the sheep marketers in the study area were operating on subsistence level. This might not be unconnected with the difficulty in acquiring the required capital, resource inputs, seasonality and as well as the speculative activities of middlemen. Studies have shown that most of the urban agricultural marketers in Nigeria operated on small-scale level; who were characterized by low productivity which leads to low income and low capital investment [35]. Number of animals supplied defines marketers’ level of business operations; ceteris paribus, the higher the scale, the higher the marketing profit because of possible economies of scale. Therefore, number of animals held per week is expected to have a positive effect on the net income. But in contrast with [48] that, firm size has no effect to greater returns, because small size holdings can generate far more returns than the large scale holdings in South Africa.

Membership of union: marketing associations serve as platform for sharing experiences, identifying and solving common problems among members. Membership to groups, focusing on a product of the market chain is an important determinant of performance [49]. Presence of groups where market players can join and access the services offered increases their bargaining power for prices and a better service which consequently improves their performance in the market chain [50]. Table 1 shows the distribution of sheep marketers by membership of marketing association in the study area. The result revealed that majority (86.81%) subscribed to the membership of sheep marketing association, whereas (13.19%) did not subscribe to the membership of association. The implication of the result is that members of sheep marketing association might have easy access to extension services, market and credit facilities. However, [51] had similar findings and concluded that, most marketers joined Association because of the results achieved by members, mostly in terms of the association’s link to markets, credit facilities and extension services. Reference [52] stated that membership of cooperative societies has advantages of accessibility to micro-credit, input subsidy, helps to share information and project collective demand. But, [53] obtained dissimilar findings that, only 10% were members of fire wood sellers’ association in Adamawa State. The low level of involvement may be for the fact that there was a stringent government regulation that banned the indiscriminate cutting of trees; most marketers prefer to operate in isolation to avoid collision with government’s law enforcement agents. Another reason for low involvement in the association is that, most of the marketers were new entrants into the business. However, the non-members were assumed to have not enjoyed benefits accrued by the co-operative societies, through pooling off resources for better expansion, efficiency and effective management and as well as profit maximization.

Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of sheep marketers.

Source: Field survey (2017).

Costs and returns of sheep marketing per week in gombe metropolis

Costs of sheep marketing were considered as; variable and fixed costs, while returns were obtained from the sales of live animals. The marketing cost was conceptualized as the difference between the amount paid by the ultimate consumers and the amount received by the producer [54]. The marketing costs involved in sheep trading in the study area is the sum of transport cost, costs of casual labour, feeding costs, costs of drugs, commission fees, loading and offloading costs, phone calls, union dues, taxes, depreciation on durable items such as feeders, drinkers, ropes, pegs, stalls, carpentry works and other costs associated with moving live animals from the point of purchase/producer to the final consumer. However, Table 2 shows the average total costs and returns of trading average 19 heads of ram and/or ewe per trader per week. The results revealed the average total costs of marketing 19 heads of ram per week per trader were ₦ 566,686.54, ($1,586.72) and ₦ 494,079.56 ($1,383.42) for ewe. This was because the supply costs of rams were higher than that of ewe. The results further revealed the average variable costs accounted for 99.15% and 99.02% of the average total costs of the respective animals. This agrees with [55] who conceptualised that, small-scale entrepreneurs’ capital allocated to fixed inputs is low and sometimes negligible. Reference [56] and [57] further supported this idea, that the proportion of fixed cost components in small-scale agricultural marketing, mostly constituted <1.0% of the total marketing costs in Bauchi State. In terms of returns; the average gross margin (GM) of ₦ 103,687.65 ($290.33) and ₦ 93,061.45 ($260.57) were realised from the sales of 19 heads of ram and ewe respectively. This further revealed per head average net income of ₦ 5,201.86 ($14.57) and ₦ 4,643.06 ($13.0) of the respective animals. The result concurred with [58], who found gross margins of ₦ 6,548.00 ($18.33); per head of cattle in south-west Nigeria. Also [59], recorded similar results that ₦ 3,037 ($8.50) per head of goat was realized as net income in Benue State. These corroborate the assertion of [60] that, for any small-scale agro investment to optimally achieve profitability, at least 10% of the total variable costs should be realised as net firm income. Also, in line with Kolo [39] who found the mean total return of ₦ 27,685.92 ($77.52) per head of animal in Dambam Local Government Area of Bauchi State and concluded that the business was profitable (Table 2).

Table 2: Costs-returns of sheep marketing in Gombe metropolis.

NB; ₦1= $0.0028.

Source: Field survey data (2017).

Effect of Socio-economic characteristics on total returns of sheep marketers

Multiple regression analysis was used to measure and predict the degree, cause and effect relationship between the socioeconomic variables and total returns. However, Table 3 shows the results of the linear function; the choice was based on a priori expectations in terms of magnitude and direction of the coefficients, magnitude of the coefficients of multiple determinations (R2), and the overall performance of the model. The fitness of the model was confirmed by the absence of autocorrelation through the significance of the F-value. The result revealed the coefficient of multiple determinations (R2) as 0.821. Meaning that 82.10% variations in the total returns of sheep marketers were influenced by the socioeconomic characteristics included in the model. The F-ratio was significant (P<0.01), meaning that the independent variables have adequately described the dependent variable included in the model. Moreover, the result further revealed that, of the nine explanatory variables included in the model, only number of animal held per week that was significant (P<0.01). Meaning that unit increase in the level of supply of animals in the study area would lead to unit increase in total returns realized [61]. It is generally believed that the more the experience of a market participant, the greater is the efficiency of that individual hence the higher the returns. However, the coefficient of marketing experience was positively non-significant. This was in line with the result of Table 1; which shows the average marketing experience of 17.68 years. From this distribution, majority of the respondents were expected to have mastered the skills required for high performance in sheep marketing. This implies that length of marketing experience was not important determinant of returns in sheep marketing. This was because, those that stayed long in the business may be older, less educated and may be reluctant to adopt new trends and techniques in marketing than the young and new entrants [62,63].

Table 3: Multiple linear regression analysis.

***P<0.01 level of significance.

Source: Field survey data (2017).

Table 4: Major constraints to sheep marketing.

*Multiple responses.

Source: Field survey data (2017).

Constraints to Sheep Marketing in Gombe Metropolis

Table 4 reveals all (100%) of sheep marketers in Gombe metropolis had complained seriously of non-remunerative prices on sales. This corroborates with high marketing costs especially the commission fees, transportation costs as a result of far distance from the source of supply and as well as high purchasing prices of the animals. Inadequate capital was also critical as far as sheep marketing in Gombe metropolis is concern; this was attributed to inadequate sources of credits; and had stated that if they had enough money, they would be able to increase the number of animals per supply, thereby making more profit and expand market size. Moreover, inadequate finance hinders marketers from getting the necessary resources and technologies which could assist them achieve higher marketing efficiency [64]. Reference [65] reported inadequate capital was one of major problems facing smallscale business in Benue State Nigeria. Reference [66] obtained similar findings that 93% of fish producers in Adamawa State had problem of insufficient funds which incapacitated them to provide enough inputs. However, Bakoji [67] suggested that marketers should as well join cooperatives, which could help them obtain market information; project a collective demands and also helped increase their capital through self-help contributions and help them maintain stable and uniform prices. Reference [51] further added that cooperatives serve as platforms for sharing experiences, identifying and solving common problems associated with the business. Price fluctuation in sheep markets was also a serious problem for the traders.

For instance, while expecting the previous year’s price, traders may tend to supply large volume of animals, but then the prices decreased unexpectedly. Brokers also create price instability so as to benefit themselves by misinforming traders about the prevailing market prices. This indicated that (84.62%) of the marketers faced difficulties in forecasting their gross returns, leading to poor planning [38]. Also, too much seasonal variation in price especially during religious festivals, such that low price did not offer sufficient incentive for sufficient supply. The result agrees with [68] who asserted that frequent price variations of farm produce is a major concern to producers, marketers and consumers [69]. Added that commodity prices may reflect seasonal production patterns by being at the lowest at peak production and highest at lean period. Also, 89.01% of the marketers had complained of transport related problems, which had much dispersion. In some cases, there are insufficient vehicles to carry animals from the farms to the rural markets and then to the study area. Most of the marketers depended on commercial vehicle as their means of transportation. In some cases, there were no or the roads were seasonal. This probably increased the transport fares. Increased cost of transportation due to the increased in oil price is also another problem mentioned.

Reference [70] stated that, inadequacy of transport facilities especially in rural areas leading to high transportation cost, inefficient and inadequate storage facilities, poor marketing of agricultural produce are some of the problems facing marketing of agricultural produce in Nigeria. Reference [71] added that, high transportation costs accounted for high proportion of the total marketing costs in most parts of the country. Reference [72] reported that, armed robbers used the opportunity of having poor roads; attacked and sometimes even killed marketers. The implication here is that, transportation problems are largely responsible for the slow increase in marketing efficiency and lead to continuous subsistence level of production in many parts of the supply sources. This also made both producers and marketers to resort sales at the nearby markets thereby losing greater proportion of their supposedly income to exploitatively dubious middlemen in the area [73]. The result therefore agrees with [74] that, existence of transport bottlenecks, lack of marketing information and lack of scientific grading and sorting of animals, with the result that prices do not refer to equivalent grades in the markets, account for low marketing efficiency in the study area. Furthermore, [75] stated that transportation is necessary to satisfy the utility of place and time. He further added that, sometimes storage may be required to adjust supply levels to meet the demand at moderate prices since consumption is regular and continuous. Reference [39] admitted that any of the available modes of transportation in Dambam Local Government Bauchi State had its own inherent problem which results to emaciation, loss and death of the animals in transit. Also, the activities of unregulated livestock produce checking points and theft cases along these routes compound the marketing problems. This drastically reduces the profit of sheep marketers in the study area. The result further revealed that 98.90% of the respondents had problems of low access to formal loan to boost their marketing activities. This agrees with [76], who in their findings reported that 80% of marketers in Niger State complained of lack of credit access associated with the volume of loan, cumbersome procedures, interest rates, collaterals and several trips to the bank before loan was granted were their major problems. Reference [77]; and [78] added that small-scale agribusiness firms faced a number of barriers in obtaining credits.

Reference [79] obtained similar results that agribusiness involves huge investments requiring availability of credit facilities to enhance and encourage adoption of technologies as well as modern marketing strategies. Such credit facilities are mostly inaccessible by small-scale marketers due to stringent conditions attached to its procurement. This is because most of them operate within a vicious cycle of poverty that prevent them access to such formal loans. This implies that, without loan to facilitate the involvement and adoption of improved technologies, marketers will not be able to expand the scope of the enterprise, which in turn would not satisfy consumers’ demand. The livestock sector was believed to be high employment generating sector but is constrained with so many problems, which in the long run limit expansion and thereby affect employment generation capacity [80]. Moreover, the marketers had problems of; scarcity of animals during festivals, diseases and pests, risks of buying unhealthy animals, theft/insecurity and as well as low educational level. Other market facilities such as clean environment, good sheds, veterinary services, fire services, banks, security, water supply, and good toilets etc. which contribute to efficient marketing were also lacking. Reference [81] observed that, lack of these basic amenities in and around markets add considerably to the marketing constraints, resulting in reduction in income. Security issues as the least constraint to sheep marketing in the study area was attributed to the ethnic conflicts and insurgency; in and around sources of livestock.

Conclusion

Based on the results obtained from this study, it may be concluded that the enterprise is profitable, dominated mostly by young married males who acquired one or the other form of education. The total returns recorded, implied that all the participants were able to cover the total costs incurred in sheep marketing and hence the total returns were influenced by the socio-economic characteristics of the marketers. It is however, a clear indication that the business is efficient and has the potentials of increasing the marketers’ income; which can induce and attracts new entrants into the market. The study will therefore serve as a guide for further research into small ruminants’ value chain, and also a base line for policy makers to intervene in designing changes and formulating a more effective market policy for the growth and development of livestock sector as a whole.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made aimed at improving sheep marketing in Gombe metropolis;

a) Meat consumption still remains the major source of proteins; as shown by positive gross margins, high and sustained investment by individuals and government in this sector is recommended, so that production and marketing of sheep will become a business away from its present subsistence state;

b) Governments and NGOs should intervene to encourage sheep marketers to engage in cooperative activities by providing the initial take-off capital needs and fostering an enabling environment for cooperative activities to thrive. This will also enable them reaps the advantage of economies of scale and help facilitate easy access to formal credit facilities;

c) Governments and other financial institutions should do more to extend funds in the form of soft loans to the marketers. This will help increase the capital base of the individual traders and also attract new entrants. Also, access to institutional credit will enable producers embark on large scale production; thereby meeting up the gaps between demand and supply especially during festive periods;

d) Governments and other stakeholders should provide favourable and functional market regulating framework that can eliminate illegal fees or taxes charged along marketing channels for small ruminants. Also, government should harmonise taxes paid by the marketers and producers so as to have a unified livestock taxing system;

e) Transportation related problems could be solved through the provision of good and accessible roads in and around the supply sources, so as to reduce the cost of conveying live animals to the markets. Also, Governments should improve policies on security measures; to help reduce the rate of insecurities like armed robbery on the highways;

f) Improvement in existing infrastructural facilities will help promote expansion of the present scale of operation. This is important once the small ruminants’ producers are assured of ready market and good bargaining for their efforts in meeting the protein needs of the populace. However, Government and Marketers’ unions should adequately provide the needed infrastructures in and around the sheep markets in the study area.

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Lupine Publishers| Method of Mapping and Classification of Eroided Land in Azerbaijan

  Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Introduction

In the conditions of Azerbaijan, erosion, causing erosion, erosion and deflation of soils, has developed a great deal. It is most distinctly expressed on soils cultivated in conditions of rain fed agriculture that are not secured and semi-provided with rainfalls. In order to solve the problems of rational use of lands subject to erosion or potentially erosion-hazardous, it is necessary to deeply understand each land mass of the farm, its features that can influence the choice of crops for those or other general measures, or private methods of agricultural technology. Obtaining such data is possible only as a result of large-scale surveys of the territory. Depending on the degree of loss of the upper horizons of the soil, usually very weak, medium, strong and very strongly eroded soil differences are isolated. The more the soils are eroded, the more they differ from their non-washed analogues in chemical, granulometric composition and physico-chemical properties, water, air and heat regimes, biogenicity and other indicators, the aggregate of which affects fertility and their erosion resistance. The nature of the changes in the granulometric composition of soils during the development of erosion is mainly determined by the degree of its homogeneity in the depth of the profile. If the soils are fertile, then undiluted and washed-out varieties are few by this feature. In the washed-out soil, the silt fraction is markedly reduced. In eroded soils, the mineralogical composition of the arable changes in connection with its change in the depth of the soil profile. Very large changes in the granulometric and mineralogical composition are observed on strongly washed soils.

With increasing soil erosion, the content of humus decreases. If the humus content of the 0-50cm layer is 168t/ha in undistorted mountain brown ostepen soils, then in the very weakly washed -156t/ha, in the slightly washed-135t/ha, in the medium-washed -108t/ha, in the strongly washed-65t/ha, and in very strongly washed-32t/ha. In eroded soils, not only does the content of humus decrease, but its qualitative composition also changes, the ratio of carbon to nitrogen narrows, thereby increasing the amount and reducing the ratio of humic acids to fulvic acids. Accordingly, the content of mobile forms of humic acids decreases. In A. Tanasienko’s opinion, these changes are stronger the more eroded soil. Reduction of humic acids leads to a decrease in fertility to a deterioration of the erosion resistance of the soil. The stronger the soils are eroded, the less they contain humus. This decrease, in general, is proportional to the decrease in nitrogen in the soil. In addition, in eroded soils, the percentage of assimilable forms of nitrogen, in particular nitrate in ammonium forms, is lower than in non-eroded varieties. A decrease in the content of hydrolyzable nitrogen and nitrates in 1.5-2.0 times is found in the mediumwashed soils. The shortage of available forms of nitrogen is one of the important reasons for the decline in the fertility of washed-out soils. With a clear regularity, a decrease in P2O5 is also observed, in medium-washed soils it is 30% and in highly washed soils it is more than 50%. Reduction of organic phosphate content and growth of sparingly soluble forms of phosphorus lead to deterioration of phosphorus nutrition of plants. In eroded soils, the content of potassium often decreases. Thus, according to its agrochemical characteristics, the washed-out soils are significantly different from the non-washed soils. Hence the need for a different application of soil fertilizers with different degrees of erosion. Eroded soils differ significantly from non-eroded soils by their physical properties. In eroded soils, the content of waterproof structural aggregates decreases. So, if the content of water-resistant aggregates is 52% in the upper horizon, then the content of water-resistant aggregates is 48%, in the slightly washed-42%, in the medium-washed 30%, strongly washed 18%, and in very strongly washed 8% . In this case, the number of aggregates less than 0.25mm increases (Table 1).

Table 1: Diagnostic indicators of different degrees of erosion of mountain-brown steppe soils.

Non-eroded soils differ from eroded by a marked differentiation of the soil profile and greater thickness. Good arable and subsoil layers. In the latter there appears a gray-brown tinge-the influence of the illuvial horizon B. In the subsoil layer, compaction is noticeably found and in some places carbonates are separated. The structure is silty-lumpy, while in virgin soils it is well-defined cloddy. The degree of erosion for each subtype of soils is determined depending on which part of the soil profile is washed away or deformed, from which horizons the arable layer is formed, what is the average yield in percent compared to the yield on non-eroded soils, and what is the slope of the slopes in degrees. The degree of erosion of soils also depends on the shape of the slope, its length and exposure, the correctness of economic use, erosion resistance, which includes a variety of mechanical, chemical and physical properties. Therefore, on the slopes of the same steepness of the soil there can be one subtype, but of different erosion. The average yield is an important indicator when determining the degree of erosion of soils. In the field, the fertility of soils was determined visually, according to the morphological features of the soil profile and the state of the plants in this area. From the data of Table 1, it is seen that as the degree of erosion increases, a decrease in the thickness of the horizons A+B of the humus reserve is observed within certain limits [1]. It should be noted that the reserve of humus (in tonnes) is calculated taking into account nitrogen and phosphorus. In addition, the data on the yield, the reduction in the classification of eroded soils, is somewhat understated. Subsequent our many years of research indicators that the yield of winter wheat on very slightly eroded mountain brown soils is reduced to an average of 10% on mediumeroded soils, to 25%, and on highly eroded soils, to 75% compared to yields on non-eroded soils.

Taking into account local peculiarities of soils, we adopted the following grouping according to the degree of soil erosion. The erosion of lands, which is established depending on the steepness and exposure of slopes, the depth of local erosion bases, the degree of erosion, the nature of the underlying rocks, and belonging to one or another agricultural land. The slope gradients for arable land were taken as follows: 0-1; 1-3; 3-5; 5-8; 8-12 and more 12. For other lands 0-1; 1-3; 3-5; 5-8; 8-12; 12-20; 20-30; 30-45 and more. The following gradations were taken from the slope exposition: northern, north-eastern, northeast, north-west, east, west, southwest, south-east and south Gradation of the depth of local erosion bases was as follows: 0-20; 20-50; 50-100; 100-150; 150-200; 200- 300; 300-400; 500-600; 600-800; 800-1000 m and more. By the degree of erosion, different categories of eroded lands are contained as soils of one degree of erosion, and their various complexes. The nature of the underlying rocks and their density were also taken into account. For each of the selected groups and categories of eroded land, recommendations were given on their use and on the application of anti-erosion measures. The main features of eroded lands are soil maps, which reflect all the contours of washed-up soils and agricultural lands. The auxiliary special maps of steepness, exposure of slopes and the depth of local erosion bases were also used. In recent years [2], there has been a significant increase in the area of eroded soils, which is due to the thoroughness of the research on the allocation of eroded lands that were not previously taken into account.

First of all, the question arises of diagnostic indicators for assessing the degree of erosion of soils. Sometimes indicators that determine the danger of erosion are used. For example, in a number of cases, the assessment of the erosion of arable soils is established on the basis of data on the distribution of arable land along slopes. Of course, the steeper the slopes, the other conditions being equal, the degree of soiliness of soils increase [3]. However, these equal conditions are not always available; therefore soils on steeper slopes can be less eroded than on sloping ones (Table 2). As can be seen from the data in Table 2, in the north-eastern part of the Greater Caucasus, arable land is more favourable under relief conditions than in the south-eastern or southern parts of the Greater Caucasus. Therefore, the soil cover here is relatively less eroded. This is largely due to the relatively greater erosion resistance of soils, a favorable regime of precipitation and the soilprotective role of vegetation. Soil-erosion studies in the Republic of Azerbaijan show that the factor-exposure of slopes often affects the distribution of eroded soils more often than the steepness of the slopes. So in the forest zone, when examining the mountain-brown ostepennyh soils on one of the sections with slopes of 15-200 on the southern slope, highly eroded soils were found, and on the slopes of the northern exposure with a slope of 15-200-slightly eroded. The great influence of the exposure of slopes on the distribution of soils was established. Thus, on the slopes of the northern exposition with gradients of 8-120 on mountain-brown graded soils, the washout is 19.2m/ha, and under similar conditions of southern exposure the washout of soils reaches 45.8m/ha. If the medium and highly eroded soils occupy 41.2% of the area on the slopes of the southern exposure, only 9.8% on the slopes of the northern exposure under similar conditions [4].

Table 2: Degree of soil erosion.

The areas of all types of landings and groups of eroded lands were calculated taking into account genetic types of soils. As a result, it became possible to make explications of the eroded lands of the republic. The explication contains data on the quantity of each type of eroded soils of different degree of erosion on certain surface slopes, in the composition of various agricultural lands. Further generalization of the materials of land erosion consists in reducing them to republican maps, where dependence on the soil cover is shown for the purpose of zoning erosion measures. For the allocation of eroded areas, the following gradation is the basis for the allocation of land erosion. Based on the mapping data of eroded soils, as well as cameral works, a map of the erosion of the soils of the Azerbaijan Republic was compiled with the following application:

Areas of no erosion

a) Not subject to soil erosion under forests;

b) Not subject to soil erosion, occupation by natural haymaking and marsh vegetation;

c) Soils, confined to such lands as fields, gardens.

Areas subject to erosion

Depending on the number of soils with different degrees of destruction of genetic horizons, the earth’s are divided into five groups:

a) Very weakly eroded land, where low-erosion differences are no more than 10% and medium- and heavily washed soils are absent.

b) Low-eroded land, where the total area of eroded differences is up to 25%. Areas of weakly washed soils-20%, medium-washed-no more than 5%, and strongly washed soils are absent.

c) Medium-eroded soils: Total eroded soils up to 50%. The area of contours with medium-eroded soils reaches 30%, slightly eroded to 15% and heavily eroded soils up to 5%, and highly eroded soils are absent.

d) Strongly eroded soils.

e) The erosion of soils is about 75% of the total area. 40% of them are highly eroded, medium-eroded - up to 25% and highly-eroded ones - 10%.

f) Very heavily eroded soils. Eroded areas account for more than 75%. Of these, very strongly eroded - more than 50%, medium, strongly eroded - more than 25%.

Taking into account the experience of our work, we fully share the views of ASKozmenko, GA Presnyakov, SSSobolev, KA Alekperov, MNZaslavsky that the color of the topsoil can be taken as the indicator erosion.

In the undistorted-the color is dark brown, the humus content is 5.0%, nitrogen is 0.30%, phosphorus is 0.22%, the absorption capacity is 35 meq per 100g of soil, the water resistance of structural aggregates is more than 1mm 52%.

a) Very weakly washed: Horizon A is washed no more than 20%, the color of the soil differs little from those that are not washed. The humus content in the upper horizon is 4.6%, nitrogen 0.28%, phosphorus 0.19%, absorption capacity 32.5 meq, the number of water-tight aggregates more than 1 mm 48%. Productivity is below 10% than in non-washed products.

b) Slightly washed: Horizon A 20 to 50% washed away, the color is brown, the humus content is 4.0%, nitrogen is 0.24%, phosphorus is 0.16%, the absorption capacity is 28.8 meq, and the number of waterproof aggregates is 48%. Yields are lower (from 10 to 25%) than those that are not smashed.

c) Medium-blurred: Horizon A is completely washed away, the color of the soil is light brown, the humus content is 2.8%, nitrogen is 0.18%, phosphorus is 0.10%, the absorption capacity is 23.8 meqv, the water-strength aggregates are 30%, yields are below 25 to 50% than that of non-washed ones.

d) Strongly washed: The horizon В1 is washed, the colour of the soil is yellowish with a brownish hue. The humus content is -1.2%, nitrogen is 0.8%, phosphorus is 0.05%, the absorption capacity is 14.5 meq, the water-strength aggregates are 18%, the productivity is from 50 to 75% (Table 3).

Table 3: Classification of pasture erosion on mountain slopes.

e) Very strongly washed: washed completely soil layer, on the surface exposed loose and hard rocks. The general classification of washed-away soils is as follows: the choice of diagnostic indicators to determine the degree of erosion of soils, the appropriate amount of allocated levels of soil erosion, standards to establish their degree of erosion.

For mountain-brown ostepenennyh soils, the degree of erosion is proposed to be determined by reducing the genetic horizons and reducing the humus content in horizons A+B. To very poorly eroded, it is recommended to refer to soils, in which, in comparison with the undisturbed, a decrease in the horizon A to 20% and a reserve of humus to 10%, to slightly eroded, respectively, 10- 25%, to medium eroded-25-50%, to strongly erode -50-75%. These gradations are proposed taking into account the variation of humus content in non-washed soils and errors in laboratory determinations. Determination of the degree of soil erosion based on the quantitative indicator of the humus content in the surface layer of the soil is an accurate and objective method that can be fully used for soil-erosion mapping of mountain-brown steppe soils and genus soils close to them in genesis Natural hayfields and pastures, constantly covered with vegetation, are considered the most effective anti-erosion form of land use. However, due to the deprivation of the protective cover on the slopes, the surface runoff of soils increases, which contributes to the intensification of the erosion process [5].

In its geographical distribution erosion processes on pastures are manifested in a certain zonal subordination, which is confined to certain bioclimatic zones and is, as it were, a product of the development of this bioclimatic environment. Depending on the degree of development of the erosion process, the nature of the vegetation cover and the soil-forming rocks, each identified type of erosion is subdivided into subtypes and varieties [6]. The grouping of eroded soils of the republic covers the main natural-landscape zones, taking into account the landscape-climatic conditions of each zone. The climate of the high mountains is characterized by a severe long winter with long snow cover and frost. Summer is short and cool. The average annual temperature does not exceed 3.2-4.10, and the cold month (January) varies from -4.6 to 7.90, the temperature of the warm month (July) is low, varies from 12.9 to 13.70, the sum of the temperatures is higher 100 is very low and does not exceed 800-600 on the average. The duration of the frost-free period is 1-2 months; the growing season lasts about 90- 120 days. The average annual precipitation is 610-1210mm, the wetting factor is 1.52-1.22, and the total solar radiation (annual) varies within the limits of 144-156 kcal/cm2. According to the reduction of climatic parameters, the entire high-mountain area refers to the wet (MD<0.45) and cold (ΣΤ> 800) climatic type. Vegetation by floral composition is extremely heterogeneous and varies with the altitude of the terrain. In the most elevated part of the zone, the vegetation is represented not by closed cover-groups of rocky assemblages (lichens, algae, etc.). For alpine meadows, dense-grassy meadows with grassy components are characteristic. Subalpine meadows are represented by cenoses of grasses, mixed herbs, rhododendron thickets, and in relatively dry parts by meadow-steppe communities.

The main types of soils are represented by mountain meadow, mountain-forest-meadow and mountain-meadow-steppe soils. Agricultural development is weak; the territory of the zone is mainly occupied by rich summer pastures and hayfields and is the basis for the development of transhumant livestock (sheep breeding) and fodder production. In alpine and subalpine meadows, the main area of which is occupied by pastures, soil erosion is the factor with which the water balance of the area is closely related. Deprived of a protective cover, the soil of sloping lands does not have time to absorb thawed and rainwater. This leads to an increase in surface runoff, which contributes to increased pulsation of rivers. It is as a result of the violation of the hydrological regime of the territory, which is mainly due to the removal of forests and knocking out grassy vegetation, In the rivers of mountainous areas, quite often very strong falls are observed in the volume of river flow. A large loss of surface runoff water worsens the regime of the rivers, both snow and especially snow. This, in turn, reduces the irrigation capacity of rivers in the foothill plains, necessitating the use of large irrigation and drainage works. Erosion processes, which resulted from the deterioration of the vegetation cover of pasture lands, contribute to a sharp drop in pasture productivity. Therefore, soil erosion and deterioration in the quality of the grass stand are closely interrelated processes. Well-developed natural grass cover significantly increases the resistance not only to the quantitative indicators of pasture plants, but also leads to the reorganization of phytocenoses.

Out of the total area of 2402.3 thousand hectares of mountain pastures more than 1985.8 thousand hectares or 82.7% are subject to erosion processes. In pastures, depending on the subzone and the exposure of the slope, the washing of soils varies from 50 to 125m3/ ha. From these studies it follows that the problem of studying pasture erosion in mountainous regions and the development of methods for preventing and combating it has been of great economic importance. When developing differential measures to improve and rational use of pastures, there is always a need to classify and group pasture lands according to their qualitative status. However, it should be noted that the issues of classification of pasture erosion have not been adequately developed at present. Moreover, even the phenomenon of erosion in pastures has not found a definite place in the general grouping of erosion processes, although the character of pasture erosion is very different from other types or categories of erosion [7]. According to the classification of eroded soils of mountain pastures, the works of VA Filkova (1958), D.Ya.Mikhailov (1959), S.U.Kerimkhanov (1972) are known. In these studies, the grouping of pasture soils in terms of the degree to which they are destroyed.

In the forms of accelerated erosion caused by human economic activity, there is much in common. However, depending on the cause that caused the erosion, these forms also have their own peculiarities.

The nature of the erosion of soils of mountain pastures differs quite sharply from erosion on the cultivated slopes. On the pastures erosion processes begin to develop usually from the moment of damage to the sod with livestock. On mountain pastures, the process of soil destruction has no similarity to the formation of patches and ruts. The length of the pits does not always exceed their width, and the presence under the thin soil layer of a waterproof dense rock nullifies the growth of the pit into the depth. Further growth in the size of erosion pits, as a rule, occurs by breaking walls, slipping along the slope with the remaining places of the sod of woven roots and resembling the formation of a ravine in the second stage of its development. The erosion pits that arise not far from each other often have vertical walls and, expanding, join together, forming sections or bands of eroded soil. With further destruction of the soil, a more or less gradual alignment of the tuberculation micro relief occurs both by shedding and under the influence of the slope runoff. Such a specific character of erosion processes on mountain pastures requires, firstly, the allocation of pasture erosion into an independent subtype or category, and secondly, the development of appropriate classification of soils in terms of their erosion.

On the basis of long-term observations, taking into account the specific features of the development of destructive processes in soils due to the influence of immodest pasture of cattle, a draft classification of pasture erosion by the degree of erosion is proposed (Table 3). This takes into account the sequence of the deformation process of the tufted layer. The results of the studies indicate the possibility of using the cultivated vegetation of arable land and the grass stand of natural meadows in order to clarify the data of the soil-erosion survey. On the areas occupied by sowing field crops are the signs by which the degree can be determined. With the increase in the steepness of the slopes, the possibility of using cultivated crops as indicators of soil erosion decreases. The degree of washout of soils in natural soils of fodder lands can be estimated on the basis of the dependence of the existing between the height of the plant stand and the degree of soil erosion. A sufficiently strong erosion of soils in sloping meadows can be recognized by ecological regimes of habitats of vegetation.

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Lupine Publishers | Spontaneous Pneumothorax and Cavitated Lesions as First Manifestation of Metastatic Lung Adenocarcinoma to Ovary and Peritoneum in Young Patient?

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Otolaryngology Impact factor

Abstract

We present the report of a case of lung cancer of atypical manifestation with important challenges in its diagnosis in a young woman who came in with pneumothorax tension, cavitated lung lesions, ovarian, hepatic and peritoneal masses and a biopsy compatible with pulmonary adenocarcinoma, whose initial approach raised the differential diagnosis of a tumor of gynecological origin. A brief literature review was conducted.

Keywords: Pneumothorax; Pulmonary Cavitation; Pulmonary Adenocarcinoma; Ovarian Metastasis; TTF1

Introduction

A 28-year-old woman who consulted the emergency department of the National Cancer Institute (Instituto Nacional de Cancerología) for a 7-month history of asthenia, adinamia, progressive dyspnea, low cough, loss of 17 kilograms of weight and the appearance of a painful mass at the level of the iliac fossa and right flank. Initially studied as an outpatient with presumptive diagnosis of granulomatous disease with negative serial baciloscopy and chest x-ray showing right atelectasis + right pneumothorax. In the tomography multiple solid nodules some with hypodense center involving both pulmonary fields, caverns of thickened walls in both apices, posterior segments of the lower lobes and upper segments of the lower lobes. In the abdominal tomography there is presence of mass surrounding uterus of 185*100*85 mm of density of soft tissues, which takes the contrast IV and cystic area of 85 mm in its right aspect of probable ovarian origin and hepatic compromise with apparent peritoneal sowings. Positive tumor markers AFP 1.2, ACE 392, CA 125 257. A right thoracostomy, fibro bronchoscopy with cultures for M. negative tuberculosis and biopsy of pelvic mass that reported lesion characterized by cords and neuroglandular formation of epithelioid cells of neoplastic aspect with a marked desmoplasic response were initially performed. For which the diagnosis of metastatic ovarian cancer to lung, liver and peritoneum is made and send to initiate management.

Case Report

Upon admission to the institution, pulmonary thromboembolism is ruled out and extensive pulmonary parenchymatous involvement (Figure 1(a)) is confirmed by nodular areas, most of them with central cavitation and frosted glass halo, which are accompanied by paramilitary consolidations, making it necessary to consider neoplastic metastatic involvement with cavitation, less likely infectious (angioinvasive aspergillosis). At abdominal level, extensive infiltrative involvement of the peritoneum, hepatic subcapsular with extension to the parenchyma in segment 6, gastrohepatic ligament, transverse mesocolon, descending mesocolon. Heterogeneous bilateral adnexal masses of neoplastic aspect (Figure 1(b&c)). Scarce ascites. We reviewed pathology material of ovarian mass biopsy with report of adenocarcinoma with reactive immunopurified for CK7, TTF1 and negative for GATA 3, WT1, RE, CDX2, PAX 8 and CK20, we added NAPSIN which was positive, confirming lung metastatic origin (Figure 2(a&b)). The new fibro bronchoscopy with biopsy had immunohistochemistry that showed reactivity in tumor cells for TTF-1 and Napsin with absence of reactivity for p40, RE and RP. Compatible with compromise by non-small cell carcinoma, favors acinar pattern primary pulmonary adenocarcinoma. Less than 10% of all lung carcinomas debut with radiological cavitations, considered secondary to tumor necrosis by ischemia and/or bronchial obstruction [1]. Tokito et al. presented a cohort of lung cancer patients, with an incidence of cavitated lesions of 5.5% meanwhile in the Sing series this report is much higher near 9.6%. In both cohorts it was more frequent to find cavitations in men, over 60 years old, ex-smokers and with squamous cell histology [2].

Figure 1: (a) Chest X ray; (b) Axial computed tomography with extensive pulmonary parenchymatous involvement. (c) Computed tomography of the abdomen and pelvis with mass surrounding uterus.

Figure 2: (b) Immunohistochemistry of Napsine A in lung tissue; (b) Immunohistochemistry of TTF1 in ovarian tissue.

Figure 3 Chest X ray.

a greater extent induced by oncologic management are infection and hemoptysis, very infrequently, the presence of spontaneous pneumothorax which is estimated between 0.03 and 0.05% of primary lung cancer with a poor prognosis [3,4]. Among 1200 patients with spontaneous pneumothorax between 1970 and 2007, 37 (3%) had lung cancer. In all patients, the pneumothorax occurred on the same side of the carcinoma. The main cause of spontaneous pneumothorax was rupture of a necrotic tumor nodule or necrosis of subpleural metastases (21 ptes)., As well as the communication between the bronchus and the pleural cavity, producing a bronchopleural fistula that results in pneumothorax [5]. Spontaneous pneumothorax in the context of lung cancer occurs in 75% of cases as an initial manifestation and the remaining 25% during the course of the disease in patients with the known diagnosis, sometimes after the onset of management [6]. In this case, the first clinical manifestation of oncological disease was the presence of dyspnea secondary to spontaneous pneumothorax, infectious causes were ruled out and required surgical intervention with subsequent need for high oxygen flow. The main sites of lung cancer metastasis are pleura, brain, bone and liver. Ovarian metastases are rare, accounting for 5% of all ovarian cancers. The main tumors that metastasize to the ovary are from the gastrointestinal tract: colon and gastric, or originated in the breast. Lung cancer alone is the cause of these metastases by 0.3% [7]. The metastases of an adenocarcinoma of the lung are difficult to distinguish from a primary carcinoma of the ovary. Although there is no specific lung marker, TTF-1 can be used to discriminate between primary pulmonary and ovarian. TTF-1 is positive in approximately 63% of lung cancers [8]. Irving and Young reported 32 cases of metastatic to ovarian lung carcinoma in women aged 26 to 76. A history of lung carcinoma was documented in 53% of cases (17 out of 32), with detection of ovarian involvement at an interval of one year. In 10 cases (31%) ovary and lung occurred synchronously, in 5 (16%) ovarian tumors were detected 26 months before lung injury. The most frequent histologic subtype was small cell carcinoma 44%, adenocarcinoma in 34% and 16% in large cell carcinoma in 16% of patients. One third had bilateral presentation and the most frequent morphological characteristics were: multinodular growth, necrosis, lymphovascular invasion with rare involvement of the ovarian surface [9]. The management decision in this case was made considering the presence of pulmonary visceral crisis, the patient’s age, her ECOG and the high risk of rapidly deteriorating. Chemotherapy with palliative intention was started with carboplatin paclitaxel with a good clinical response in the two initial cycles, with which the requirement of supplementary oxygen and control of dyspnea was reduced. 40 days later, the patient was admitted with subite dyspnea of 3 days of evolution. with chest x-ray (Figure 3) that evidences left pneumothorax, ventilatory failure and dies despite rescue procedure.

Conclusion

Patients with cavitated tumors develop serious complications during or after chemotherapy or concomitance such as infection or massive hemoptysis. There are no reports of safety and efficacy of the use of chemotherapy in patients with advanced lung cancer with cavitated lesions. Some retrospective reports that have evaluated toxicity in this group of patients in the a 9% study developed hemoptysis, considering it as acceptable toxicity for this group of patients. Sandler et al reported that 30% of patients treated with carboplatin+paclitaxel+bevacizumab presented hemoptysis vs 6% of those without cavitations. In our case, taxane and platinumbased chemotherapy were initiated while obtaining studies of EGFR, ALK, Ros 1 and PDL1 to optimize management, with the initial cycles the palliation objective was achieved. However, the subsequent occurrence of pneumothorax is a possible consequence of the effect of cytotoxic treatment on existing lung lesions. It is not clear from the literature what would be the safest scheme, dose or frequency for this population to avoid the development of this type of complications. It is necessary to increase the reporting of these cases in order to try to elucidate their management.