Lupine Publishers| Method of Mapping and Classification of Eroided Land in Azerbaijan

  Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Introduction

In the conditions of Azerbaijan, erosion, causing erosion, erosion and deflation of soils, has developed a great deal. It is most distinctly expressed on soils cultivated in conditions of rain fed agriculture that are not secured and semi-provided with rainfalls. In order to solve the problems of rational use of lands subject to erosion or potentially erosion-hazardous, it is necessary to deeply understand each land mass of the farm, its features that can influence the choice of crops for those or other general measures, or private methods of agricultural technology. Obtaining such data is possible only as a result of large-scale surveys of the territory. Depending on the degree of loss of the upper horizons of the soil, usually very weak, medium, strong and very strongly eroded soil differences are isolated. The more the soils are eroded, the more they differ from their non-washed analogues in chemical, granulometric composition and physico-chemical properties, water, air and heat regimes, biogenicity and other indicators, the aggregate of which affects fertility and their erosion resistance. The nature of the changes in the granulometric composition of soils during the development of erosion is mainly determined by the degree of its homogeneity in the depth of the profile. If the soils are fertile, then undiluted and washed-out varieties are few by this feature. In the washed-out soil, the silt fraction is markedly reduced. In eroded soils, the mineralogical composition of the arable changes in connection with its change in the depth of the soil profile. Very large changes in the granulometric and mineralogical composition are observed on strongly washed soils.

With increasing soil erosion, the content of humus decreases. If the humus content of the 0-50cm layer is 168t/ha in undistorted mountain brown ostepen soils, then in the very weakly washed -156t/ha, in the slightly washed-135t/ha, in the medium-washed -108t/ha, in the strongly washed-65t/ha, and in very strongly washed-32t/ha. In eroded soils, not only does the content of humus decrease, but its qualitative composition also changes, the ratio of carbon to nitrogen narrows, thereby increasing the amount and reducing the ratio of humic acids to fulvic acids. Accordingly, the content of mobile forms of humic acids decreases. In A. Tanasienko’s opinion, these changes are stronger the more eroded soil. Reduction of humic acids leads to a decrease in fertility to a deterioration of the erosion resistance of the soil. The stronger the soils are eroded, the less they contain humus. This decrease, in general, is proportional to the decrease in nitrogen in the soil. In addition, in eroded soils, the percentage of assimilable forms of nitrogen, in particular nitrate in ammonium forms, is lower than in non-eroded varieties. A decrease in the content of hydrolyzable nitrogen and nitrates in 1.5-2.0 times is found in the mediumwashed soils. The shortage of available forms of nitrogen is one of the important reasons for the decline in the fertility of washed-out soils. With a clear regularity, a decrease in P2O5 is also observed, in medium-washed soils it is 30% and in highly washed soils it is more than 50%. Reduction of organic phosphate content and growth of sparingly soluble forms of phosphorus lead to deterioration of phosphorus nutrition of plants. In eroded soils, the content of potassium often decreases. Thus, according to its agrochemical characteristics, the washed-out soils are significantly different from the non-washed soils. Hence the need for a different application of soil fertilizers with different degrees of erosion. Eroded soils differ significantly from non-eroded soils by their physical properties. In eroded soils, the content of waterproof structural aggregates decreases. So, if the content of water-resistant aggregates is 52% in the upper horizon, then the content of water-resistant aggregates is 48%, in the slightly washed-42%, in the medium-washed 30%, strongly washed 18%, and in very strongly washed 8% . In this case, the number of aggregates less than 0.25mm increases (Table 1).

Table 1: Diagnostic indicators of different degrees of erosion of mountain-brown steppe soils.

Non-eroded soils differ from eroded by a marked differentiation of the soil profile and greater thickness. Good arable and subsoil layers. In the latter there appears a gray-brown tinge-the influence of the illuvial horizon B. In the subsoil layer, compaction is noticeably found and in some places carbonates are separated. The structure is silty-lumpy, while in virgin soils it is well-defined cloddy. The degree of erosion for each subtype of soils is determined depending on which part of the soil profile is washed away or deformed, from which horizons the arable layer is formed, what is the average yield in percent compared to the yield on non-eroded soils, and what is the slope of the slopes in degrees. The degree of erosion of soils also depends on the shape of the slope, its length and exposure, the correctness of economic use, erosion resistance, which includes a variety of mechanical, chemical and physical properties. Therefore, on the slopes of the same steepness of the soil there can be one subtype, but of different erosion. The average yield is an important indicator when determining the degree of erosion of soils. In the field, the fertility of soils was determined visually, according to the morphological features of the soil profile and the state of the plants in this area. From the data of Table 1, it is seen that as the degree of erosion increases, a decrease in the thickness of the horizons A+B of the humus reserve is observed within certain limits [1]. It should be noted that the reserve of humus (in tonnes) is calculated taking into account nitrogen and phosphorus. In addition, the data on the yield, the reduction in the classification of eroded soils, is somewhat understated. Subsequent our many years of research indicators that the yield of winter wheat on very slightly eroded mountain brown soils is reduced to an average of 10% on mediumeroded soils, to 25%, and on highly eroded soils, to 75% compared to yields on non-eroded soils.

Taking into account local peculiarities of soils, we adopted the following grouping according to the degree of soil erosion. The erosion of lands, which is established depending on the steepness and exposure of slopes, the depth of local erosion bases, the degree of erosion, the nature of the underlying rocks, and belonging to one or another agricultural land. The slope gradients for arable land were taken as follows: 0-1; 1-3; 3-5; 5-8; 8-12 and more 12. For other lands 0-1; 1-3; 3-5; 5-8; 8-12; 12-20; 20-30; 30-45 and more. The following gradations were taken from the slope exposition: northern, north-eastern, northeast, north-west, east, west, southwest, south-east and south Gradation of the depth of local erosion bases was as follows: 0-20; 20-50; 50-100; 100-150; 150-200; 200- 300; 300-400; 500-600; 600-800; 800-1000 m and more. By the degree of erosion, different categories of eroded lands are contained as soils of one degree of erosion, and their various complexes. The nature of the underlying rocks and their density were also taken into account. For each of the selected groups and categories of eroded land, recommendations were given on their use and on the application of anti-erosion measures. The main features of eroded lands are soil maps, which reflect all the contours of washed-up soils and agricultural lands. The auxiliary special maps of steepness, exposure of slopes and the depth of local erosion bases were also used. In recent years [2], there has been a significant increase in the area of eroded soils, which is due to the thoroughness of the research on the allocation of eroded lands that were not previously taken into account.

First of all, the question arises of diagnostic indicators for assessing the degree of erosion of soils. Sometimes indicators that determine the danger of erosion are used. For example, in a number of cases, the assessment of the erosion of arable soils is established on the basis of data on the distribution of arable land along slopes. Of course, the steeper the slopes, the other conditions being equal, the degree of soiliness of soils increase [3]. However, these equal conditions are not always available; therefore soils on steeper slopes can be less eroded than on sloping ones (Table 2). As can be seen from the data in Table 2, in the north-eastern part of the Greater Caucasus, arable land is more favourable under relief conditions than in the south-eastern or southern parts of the Greater Caucasus. Therefore, the soil cover here is relatively less eroded. This is largely due to the relatively greater erosion resistance of soils, a favorable regime of precipitation and the soilprotective role of vegetation. Soil-erosion studies in the Republic of Azerbaijan show that the factor-exposure of slopes often affects the distribution of eroded soils more often than the steepness of the slopes. So in the forest zone, when examining the mountain-brown ostepennyh soils on one of the sections with slopes of 15-200 on the southern slope, highly eroded soils were found, and on the slopes of the northern exposure with a slope of 15-200-slightly eroded. The great influence of the exposure of slopes on the distribution of soils was established. Thus, on the slopes of the northern exposition with gradients of 8-120 on mountain-brown graded soils, the washout is 19.2m/ha, and under similar conditions of southern exposure the washout of soils reaches 45.8m/ha. If the medium and highly eroded soils occupy 41.2% of the area on the slopes of the southern exposure, only 9.8% on the slopes of the northern exposure under similar conditions [4].

Table 2: Degree of soil erosion.

The areas of all types of landings and groups of eroded lands were calculated taking into account genetic types of soils. As a result, it became possible to make explications of the eroded lands of the republic. The explication contains data on the quantity of each type of eroded soils of different degree of erosion on certain surface slopes, in the composition of various agricultural lands. Further generalization of the materials of land erosion consists in reducing them to republican maps, where dependence on the soil cover is shown for the purpose of zoning erosion measures. For the allocation of eroded areas, the following gradation is the basis for the allocation of land erosion. Based on the mapping data of eroded soils, as well as cameral works, a map of the erosion of the soils of the Azerbaijan Republic was compiled with the following application:

Areas of no erosion

a) Not subject to soil erosion under forests;

b) Not subject to soil erosion, occupation by natural haymaking and marsh vegetation;

c) Soils, confined to such lands as fields, gardens.

Areas subject to erosion

Depending on the number of soils with different degrees of destruction of genetic horizons, the earth’s are divided into five groups:

a) Very weakly eroded land, where low-erosion differences are no more than 10% and medium- and heavily washed soils are absent.

b) Low-eroded land, where the total area of eroded differences is up to 25%. Areas of weakly washed soils-20%, medium-washed-no more than 5%, and strongly washed soils are absent.

c) Medium-eroded soils: Total eroded soils up to 50%. The area of contours with medium-eroded soils reaches 30%, slightly eroded to 15% and heavily eroded soils up to 5%, and highly eroded soils are absent.

d) Strongly eroded soils.

e) The erosion of soils is about 75% of the total area. 40% of them are highly eroded, medium-eroded - up to 25% and highly-eroded ones - 10%.

f) Very heavily eroded soils. Eroded areas account for more than 75%. Of these, very strongly eroded - more than 50%, medium, strongly eroded - more than 25%.

Taking into account the experience of our work, we fully share the views of ASKozmenko, GA Presnyakov, SSSobolev, KA Alekperov, MNZaslavsky that the color of the topsoil can be taken as the indicator erosion.

In the undistorted-the color is dark brown, the humus content is 5.0%, nitrogen is 0.30%, phosphorus is 0.22%, the absorption capacity is 35 meq per 100g of soil, the water resistance of structural aggregates is more than 1mm 52%.

a) Very weakly washed: Horizon A is washed no more than 20%, the color of the soil differs little from those that are not washed. The humus content in the upper horizon is 4.6%, nitrogen 0.28%, phosphorus 0.19%, absorption capacity 32.5 meq, the number of water-tight aggregates more than 1 mm 48%. Productivity is below 10% than in non-washed products.

b) Slightly washed: Horizon A 20 to 50% washed away, the color is brown, the humus content is 4.0%, nitrogen is 0.24%, phosphorus is 0.16%, the absorption capacity is 28.8 meq, and the number of waterproof aggregates is 48%. Yields are lower (from 10 to 25%) than those that are not smashed.

c) Medium-blurred: Horizon A is completely washed away, the color of the soil is light brown, the humus content is 2.8%, nitrogen is 0.18%, phosphorus is 0.10%, the absorption capacity is 23.8 meqv, the water-strength aggregates are 30%, yields are below 25 to 50% than that of non-washed ones.

d) Strongly washed: The horizon В1 is washed, the colour of the soil is yellowish with a brownish hue. The humus content is -1.2%, nitrogen is 0.8%, phosphorus is 0.05%, the absorption capacity is 14.5 meq, the water-strength aggregates are 18%, the productivity is from 50 to 75% (Table 3).

Table 3: Classification of pasture erosion on mountain slopes.

e) Very strongly washed: washed completely soil layer, on the surface exposed loose and hard rocks. The general classification of washed-away soils is as follows: the choice of diagnostic indicators to determine the degree of erosion of soils, the appropriate amount of allocated levels of soil erosion, standards to establish their degree of erosion.

For mountain-brown ostepenennyh soils, the degree of erosion is proposed to be determined by reducing the genetic horizons and reducing the humus content in horizons A+B. To very poorly eroded, it is recommended to refer to soils, in which, in comparison with the undisturbed, a decrease in the horizon A to 20% and a reserve of humus to 10%, to slightly eroded, respectively, 10- 25%, to medium eroded-25-50%, to strongly erode -50-75%. These gradations are proposed taking into account the variation of humus content in non-washed soils and errors in laboratory determinations. Determination of the degree of soil erosion based on the quantitative indicator of the humus content in the surface layer of the soil is an accurate and objective method that can be fully used for soil-erosion mapping of mountain-brown steppe soils and genus soils close to them in genesis Natural hayfields and pastures, constantly covered with vegetation, are considered the most effective anti-erosion form of land use. However, due to the deprivation of the protective cover on the slopes, the surface runoff of soils increases, which contributes to the intensification of the erosion process [5].

In its geographical distribution erosion processes on pastures are manifested in a certain zonal subordination, which is confined to certain bioclimatic zones and is, as it were, a product of the development of this bioclimatic environment. Depending on the degree of development of the erosion process, the nature of the vegetation cover and the soil-forming rocks, each identified type of erosion is subdivided into subtypes and varieties [6]. The grouping of eroded soils of the republic covers the main natural-landscape zones, taking into account the landscape-climatic conditions of each zone. The climate of the high mountains is characterized by a severe long winter with long snow cover and frost. Summer is short and cool. The average annual temperature does not exceed 3.2-4.10, and the cold month (January) varies from -4.6 to 7.90, the temperature of the warm month (July) is low, varies from 12.9 to 13.70, the sum of the temperatures is higher 100 is very low and does not exceed 800-600 on the average. The duration of the frost-free period is 1-2 months; the growing season lasts about 90- 120 days. The average annual precipitation is 610-1210mm, the wetting factor is 1.52-1.22, and the total solar radiation (annual) varies within the limits of 144-156 kcal/cm2. According to the reduction of climatic parameters, the entire high-mountain area refers to the wet (MD<0.45) and cold (ΣΤ> 800) climatic type. Vegetation by floral composition is extremely heterogeneous and varies with the altitude of the terrain. In the most elevated part of the zone, the vegetation is represented not by closed cover-groups of rocky assemblages (lichens, algae, etc.). For alpine meadows, dense-grassy meadows with grassy components are characteristic. Subalpine meadows are represented by cenoses of grasses, mixed herbs, rhododendron thickets, and in relatively dry parts by meadow-steppe communities.

The main types of soils are represented by mountain meadow, mountain-forest-meadow and mountain-meadow-steppe soils. Agricultural development is weak; the territory of the zone is mainly occupied by rich summer pastures and hayfields and is the basis for the development of transhumant livestock (sheep breeding) and fodder production. In alpine and subalpine meadows, the main area of which is occupied by pastures, soil erosion is the factor with which the water balance of the area is closely related. Deprived of a protective cover, the soil of sloping lands does not have time to absorb thawed and rainwater. This leads to an increase in surface runoff, which contributes to increased pulsation of rivers. It is as a result of the violation of the hydrological regime of the territory, which is mainly due to the removal of forests and knocking out grassy vegetation, In the rivers of mountainous areas, quite often very strong falls are observed in the volume of river flow. A large loss of surface runoff water worsens the regime of the rivers, both snow and especially snow. This, in turn, reduces the irrigation capacity of rivers in the foothill plains, necessitating the use of large irrigation and drainage works. Erosion processes, which resulted from the deterioration of the vegetation cover of pasture lands, contribute to a sharp drop in pasture productivity. Therefore, soil erosion and deterioration in the quality of the grass stand are closely interrelated processes. Well-developed natural grass cover significantly increases the resistance not only to the quantitative indicators of pasture plants, but also leads to the reorganization of phytocenoses.

Out of the total area of 2402.3 thousand hectares of mountain pastures more than 1985.8 thousand hectares or 82.7% are subject to erosion processes. In pastures, depending on the subzone and the exposure of the slope, the washing of soils varies from 50 to 125m3/ ha. From these studies it follows that the problem of studying pasture erosion in mountainous regions and the development of methods for preventing and combating it has been of great economic importance. When developing differential measures to improve and rational use of pastures, there is always a need to classify and group pasture lands according to their qualitative status. However, it should be noted that the issues of classification of pasture erosion have not been adequately developed at present. Moreover, even the phenomenon of erosion in pastures has not found a definite place in the general grouping of erosion processes, although the character of pasture erosion is very different from other types or categories of erosion [7]. According to the classification of eroded soils of mountain pastures, the works of VA Filkova (1958), D.Ya.Mikhailov (1959), S.U.Kerimkhanov (1972) are known. In these studies, the grouping of pasture soils in terms of the degree to which they are destroyed.

In the forms of accelerated erosion caused by human economic activity, there is much in common. However, depending on the cause that caused the erosion, these forms also have their own peculiarities.

The nature of the erosion of soils of mountain pastures differs quite sharply from erosion on the cultivated slopes. On the pastures erosion processes begin to develop usually from the moment of damage to the sod with livestock. On mountain pastures, the process of soil destruction has no similarity to the formation of patches and ruts. The length of the pits does not always exceed their width, and the presence under the thin soil layer of a waterproof dense rock nullifies the growth of the pit into the depth. Further growth in the size of erosion pits, as a rule, occurs by breaking walls, slipping along the slope with the remaining places of the sod of woven roots and resembling the formation of a ravine in the second stage of its development. The erosion pits that arise not far from each other often have vertical walls and, expanding, join together, forming sections or bands of eroded soil. With further destruction of the soil, a more or less gradual alignment of the tuberculation micro relief occurs both by shedding and under the influence of the slope runoff. Such a specific character of erosion processes on mountain pastures requires, firstly, the allocation of pasture erosion into an independent subtype or category, and secondly, the development of appropriate classification of soils in terms of their erosion.

On the basis of long-term observations, taking into account the specific features of the development of destructive processes in soils due to the influence of immodest pasture of cattle, a draft classification of pasture erosion by the degree of erosion is proposed (Table 3). This takes into account the sequence of the deformation process of the tufted layer. The results of the studies indicate the possibility of using the cultivated vegetation of arable land and the grass stand of natural meadows in order to clarify the data of the soil-erosion survey. On the areas occupied by sowing field crops are the signs by which the degree can be determined. With the increase in the steepness of the slopes, the possibility of using cultivated crops as indicators of soil erosion decreases. The degree of washout of soils in natural soils of fodder lands can be estimated on the basis of the dependence of the existing between the height of the plant stand and the degree of soil erosion. A sufficiently strong erosion of soils in sloping meadows can be recognized by ecological regimes of habitats of vegetation.

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Lupine Publishers | Spontaneous Pneumothorax and Cavitated Lesions as First Manifestation of Metastatic Lung Adenocarcinoma to Ovary and Peritoneum in Young Patient?

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Otolaryngology Impact factor

Abstract

We present the report of a case of lung cancer of atypical manifestation with important challenges in its diagnosis in a young woman who came in with pneumothorax tension, cavitated lung lesions, ovarian, hepatic and peritoneal masses and a biopsy compatible with pulmonary adenocarcinoma, whose initial approach raised the differential diagnosis of a tumor of gynecological origin. A brief literature review was conducted.

Keywords: Pneumothorax; Pulmonary Cavitation; Pulmonary Adenocarcinoma; Ovarian Metastasis; TTF1

Introduction

A 28-year-old woman who consulted the emergency department of the National Cancer Institute (Instituto Nacional de Cancerología) for a 7-month history of asthenia, adinamia, progressive dyspnea, low cough, loss of 17 kilograms of weight and the appearance of a painful mass at the level of the iliac fossa and right flank. Initially studied as an outpatient with presumptive diagnosis of granulomatous disease with negative serial baciloscopy and chest x-ray showing right atelectasis + right pneumothorax. In the tomography multiple solid nodules some with hypodense center involving both pulmonary fields, caverns of thickened walls in both apices, posterior segments of the lower lobes and upper segments of the lower lobes. In the abdominal tomography there is presence of mass surrounding uterus of 185*100*85 mm of density of soft tissues, which takes the contrast IV and cystic area of 85 mm in its right aspect of probable ovarian origin and hepatic compromise with apparent peritoneal sowings. Positive tumor markers AFP 1.2, ACE 392, CA 125 257. A right thoracostomy, fibro bronchoscopy with cultures for M. negative tuberculosis and biopsy of pelvic mass that reported lesion characterized by cords and neuroglandular formation of epithelioid cells of neoplastic aspect with a marked desmoplasic response were initially performed. For which the diagnosis of metastatic ovarian cancer to lung, liver and peritoneum is made and send to initiate management.

Case Report

Upon admission to the institution, pulmonary thromboembolism is ruled out and extensive pulmonary parenchymatous involvement (Figure 1(a)) is confirmed by nodular areas, most of them with central cavitation and frosted glass halo, which are accompanied by paramilitary consolidations, making it necessary to consider neoplastic metastatic involvement with cavitation, less likely infectious (angioinvasive aspergillosis). At abdominal level, extensive infiltrative involvement of the peritoneum, hepatic subcapsular with extension to the parenchyma in segment 6, gastrohepatic ligament, transverse mesocolon, descending mesocolon. Heterogeneous bilateral adnexal masses of neoplastic aspect (Figure 1(b&c)). Scarce ascites. We reviewed pathology material of ovarian mass biopsy with report of adenocarcinoma with reactive immunopurified for CK7, TTF1 and negative for GATA 3, WT1, RE, CDX2, PAX 8 and CK20, we added NAPSIN which was positive, confirming lung metastatic origin (Figure 2(a&b)). The new fibro bronchoscopy with biopsy had immunohistochemistry that showed reactivity in tumor cells for TTF-1 and Napsin with absence of reactivity for p40, RE and RP. Compatible with compromise by non-small cell carcinoma, favors acinar pattern primary pulmonary adenocarcinoma. Less than 10% of all lung carcinomas debut with radiological cavitations, considered secondary to tumor necrosis by ischemia and/or bronchial obstruction [1]. Tokito et al. presented a cohort of lung cancer patients, with an incidence of cavitated lesions of 5.5% meanwhile in the Sing series this report is much higher near 9.6%. In both cohorts it was more frequent to find cavitations in men, over 60 years old, ex-smokers and with squamous cell histology [2].

Figure 1: (a) Chest X ray; (b) Axial computed tomography with extensive pulmonary parenchymatous involvement. (c) Computed tomography of the abdomen and pelvis with mass surrounding uterus.

Figure 2: (b) Immunohistochemistry of Napsine A in lung tissue; (b) Immunohistochemistry of TTF1 in ovarian tissue.

Figure 3 Chest X ray.

a greater extent induced by oncologic management are infection and hemoptysis, very infrequently, the presence of spontaneous pneumothorax which is estimated between 0.03 and 0.05% of primary lung cancer with a poor prognosis [3,4]. Among 1200 patients with spontaneous pneumothorax between 1970 and 2007, 37 (3%) had lung cancer. In all patients, the pneumothorax occurred on the same side of the carcinoma. The main cause of spontaneous pneumothorax was rupture of a necrotic tumor nodule or necrosis of subpleural metastases (21 ptes)., As well as the communication between the bronchus and the pleural cavity, producing a bronchopleural fistula that results in pneumothorax [5]. Spontaneous pneumothorax in the context of lung cancer occurs in 75% of cases as an initial manifestation and the remaining 25% during the course of the disease in patients with the known diagnosis, sometimes after the onset of management [6]. In this case, the first clinical manifestation of oncological disease was the presence of dyspnea secondary to spontaneous pneumothorax, infectious causes were ruled out and required surgical intervention with subsequent need for high oxygen flow. The main sites of lung cancer metastasis are pleura, brain, bone and liver. Ovarian metastases are rare, accounting for 5% of all ovarian cancers. The main tumors that metastasize to the ovary are from the gastrointestinal tract: colon and gastric, or originated in the breast. Lung cancer alone is the cause of these metastases by 0.3% [7]. The metastases of an adenocarcinoma of the lung are difficult to distinguish from a primary carcinoma of the ovary. Although there is no specific lung marker, TTF-1 can be used to discriminate between primary pulmonary and ovarian. TTF-1 is positive in approximately 63% of lung cancers [8]. Irving and Young reported 32 cases of metastatic to ovarian lung carcinoma in women aged 26 to 76. A history of lung carcinoma was documented in 53% of cases (17 out of 32), with detection of ovarian involvement at an interval of one year. In 10 cases (31%) ovary and lung occurred synchronously, in 5 (16%) ovarian tumors were detected 26 months before lung injury. The most frequent histologic subtype was small cell carcinoma 44%, adenocarcinoma in 34% and 16% in large cell carcinoma in 16% of patients. One third had bilateral presentation and the most frequent morphological characteristics were: multinodular growth, necrosis, lymphovascular invasion with rare involvement of the ovarian surface [9]. The management decision in this case was made considering the presence of pulmonary visceral crisis, the patient’s age, her ECOG and the high risk of rapidly deteriorating. Chemotherapy with palliative intention was started with carboplatin paclitaxel with a good clinical response in the two initial cycles, with which the requirement of supplementary oxygen and control of dyspnea was reduced. 40 days later, the patient was admitted with subite dyspnea of 3 days of evolution. with chest x-ray (Figure 3) that evidences left pneumothorax, ventilatory failure and dies despite rescue procedure.

Conclusion

Patients with cavitated tumors develop serious complications during or after chemotherapy or concomitance such as infection or massive hemoptysis. There are no reports of safety and efficacy of the use of chemotherapy in patients with advanced lung cancer with cavitated lesions. Some retrospective reports that have evaluated toxicity in this group of patients in the a 9% study developed hemoptysis, considering it as acceptable toxicity for this group of patients. Sandler et al reported that 30% of patients treated with carboplatin+paclitaxel+bevacizumab presented hemoptysis vs 6% of those without cavitations. In our case, taxane and platinumbased chemotherapy were initiated while obtaining studies of EGFR, ALK, Ros 1 and PDL1 to optimize management, with the initial cycles the palliation objective was achieved. However, the subsequent occurrence of pneumothorax is a possible consequence of the effect of cytotoxic treatment on existing lung lesions. It is not clear from the literature what would be the safest scheme, dose or frequency for this population to avoid the development of this type of complications. It is necessary to increase the reporting of these cases in order to try to elucidate their management.

Lupine Publishers | Scientific Substantiation of Rational Irrigation Technologies for Mountain Agriculture Region in Azerbaijan

   Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Introduction

Figure 1 At present, in the field of agricultural reclamation irrigation questions inadequately represented in Azerbaijan. Underdeveloped questions rational application of different methods of irrigation and improve the design of irrigation networks.

Figure 1: Train the farmers for operation and maintenance of solar desalination system.

Objectives of Research

Today’s challenge lies in land development with high and steep slopes. In these circumstances, you must, first and foremost, to replace open irrigation network in earthen channel with the use of devices for water allocation between slots by more sophisticated devices that will fundamentally solve the issue mechanization and automation of distribution of water in irrigated fields.

Strokes: Study

Given the importance of these issues, we have developed concepts for various slope area. This enabled one site cover a wide range of conditions, where various methods were tested and irrigation technique. The outcome of many research proved that the large slopes (more than 80) to avoid a direct hit on the ground rain Jet an unbroken structure, you must navigate to the sectorial sprinkler irrigation. The angle of the sector here is calculated depending on the angle of the irrigation area. When sprinkling the terraced slopes, rainfall value is assigned from slope and soil conditions on the slopes of terraces. When slopes 6-8 you can apply irrigation machines type DTTS applying irrigation water by flexible hoses, namatyvajushhimsja and razmatyvajushhimsja sprinkling machines, SIDAD and other types of micro-irrigation systems [1]. Downhill 4-5 degrees use semi-permanent sprinkling systems based on flexible high-pressure polymer hoses. In this direction were carried out research scholars of Georgia, Tadzhikstana, Kazakhstan, Russian federation, etc. Special interest research V.a. Surina, entitled “development of irrigation technology on the slopes of the Fergana Valley. According to the description of the author notes that in the irrigated areas of Central Asia with each passing year, there is a growing shortage of land and water resources. At the same time-in the regions with high density of population and fertility, the problem arises of employment of the working population.

Given the above, it is considered that the steep slopes can successfully be sprayed podpoch Govt. or drop way, on high permeable soils can use sprinkler irrigation. Most common in the arid zone surface gravity irrigation. However, in its current form to recommend them for irrigation of steep slopes with low permeable soils is impossible. According to the results of multi-year experiments proved that irrigation erosion on gray Earth becomes palpable when slopes 0.008. 0.03. When further increase slope and application of irrigation technique it increases dramatically [2-4]. Therefore, the higher the slope, the more careful you should be suitable to the development of slopes by applying glaze furrow here only in an improved form. Our studies (1998-2015 years) watering instructions tilled crops (cotton) and perennial plantations (vineyards and orchards) on large slopes, slope up to 170 (slope 0.3) in the foothills of Shamakha and Guba districts the results show that the surface gravity irrigation by furrows in improved form is perfectly acceptable for irrigation of lands with steep slopes up to 0.3 (17 angle) irrigations on furrows and agricultural processing possible without the device [5]. On slopes more than 170 need to terracing.

The ways and techniques to improve irrigation on furrows on the big slopes and steep slopes are:

a) layout of surface slopes;

b) selection of the optimal direction of irrigation furrows;

c) watering across the aisle on condensed tractor wheels furrows;

d) selection of the optimal furrow length and costs of irrigation Jet;

e) device perfect onfarm irrigation network and technical means water in furrows to ensure accurate dosing and adjustment of irrigation Jet in time;

f) optimization of irrigation regime of irrigation systems;

As noted above, the layout event is mandatory while mastering the slopes, but the possible volumes of it depend on the power of melkozemistogo soil layer. The powerful soil podzolic soil and loess-layout fix terrain dramatically, giving it a smooth character. Volumes greater than here planirovochnyh works srezok reach in some places a few meters (2.3 and more). On soils with lowlayer melkozemistogo podstilaemogo shingle or rock strata, planning perform small amounts in order to preserve the top layer melkozemistogo. Therefore, after the relief of the irrigated plots planirovochnyh works can have a calm nature, or remain challenging as the arid lands, specific lands Top Guba-shirvan and Hachmasskih regions. One of the most important measures to improve methods of irrigation on large hillsides and steep slopes is correctly selected direction of irrigation furrows. Direction of irrigation furrows to the underlying terrain slope on steep slopes, in view of the chosen quality irrigation and mechanized crop treatments possible. For example, modern three-wheeled tractors can work across a slope on slopes not exceeding 0.1 and middle massive crawler tractors-on slopes of not more than 0.2. When the big slopes, there is a risk of sliding tractor down the slope.

Therefore, on the fields at hillsides 0.1 agricultural equipment should operate only in the direction of greatest slope. When slopes 0.2. they can spend 0.3 tillage only going down the slope, and they climb up the idling speed across the field, or on the road [5]. On slopes of more than 0.3 mechanized inter-row cotton processing almost impossible, and it is recommended that you move to the terracing on the terraces of vineyards and orchards. On the basis of the above considerations, the following classification of irrigated lands in the foothill zone in Table 1. Here are some ranges of authors Aliyev B.H., Aliyev Z.H., eti., similar, but watering instructions differ significantly. In particular, Aliyev b., believes that on slopes 0.1, 0.25 and more, with difficult terrain need terracing [3-5]. The author recommends terracing on slopes or more 0.3 and 0.1 on slopes and 0.35 irrigation along the slope by short furrows small squirt. The author’s recommendations confirmed by experiences put us under production conditions on OJeB erosion and Irrigation research institute of ANAS Shamakhi district. Studies have shown that the large slopes (0.008 in 0.03) furrow irrigation be directed along the slope. Change the direction of the grooves on these slopes can cause increased amounts of planning works. In addition, when deficient planning biases along the furrows in some areas may be less than optimal, and are equal to 0.02 in 0.03. As a result, poorquality irrigation in Ganja-Kazakh izrezhennost zone of vineyards increased with each passing year, the harvest fell and after 8 years after planting had to undertake the reconstruction of vineyards. On new vineyards in these areas give the direction of furrows on the slope.

Table 1: Classification of irrigated lands in the foothill zone largest slope surface.

On slopes 0.03, 0.1 when flat relief irrigation furrows it is advisable to cut into sloping 0.01 ... 0.03 across a slope. This gradient ensures water movement in furrows with a small filling them. When the furrows not overflowing with water and does not cause soil erosion on slopes. When difficult terrain irrigation furrow directed by the greatest slope of the terrain [6]. It is not recommended to send furrows across a slope also strongly stony soil, because here it is possible to strong water filtration through stony fraction of upstream furrows in below. This phenomenon has been observed on a slope of terrain and content of 0.05 stony fractions in the number 55.. 85%. On slopes 0.1, 0.3 irrigation furrows should be directed by the greatest bias, because on these slopes when working till the tractor across a slope, it is slipping and tipping. As you can see from the above, watering through the aisle to condensed furrow is an important point for spending watering steep slopes. On large slope terrain inter-row spacing, obviously, should be 60 cm, increase the width of spacing up to 90 cm here does not allow to increase irrigation Jet (due to soil erosion), nor the length of the furrow. Experiments have shown that the large slopes at 60 cm spacing and watering in each furrow irrigation norms constitute the actual 2,4thm3/ha or more against the estimated 1.2,1.5 thousand m3/HA. At the same time, Central Asia outline width sierozems soil moisture reaches the 1.1,1.2m more width of a path under the sealed slots. Compacted layer plays the role of a screen, which contributes to a better diffusion of moisture.

In compacted advance until the end of time grooves grooves less the result is a more uniform wetting the soil along the length of the furrow and a little soil erosion. Analysis of the results of the studies showed that on the big slopes and steep slopes of interrow spacing must be 60cm, and watering should be conducted through the aisle (via 120cm) soft wheels tractor furrows. A characteristic feature of irrigation technology on steep slopes is to regulate irrigation jets in time: at the beginning of watering give small Jet, then through 5-7 hours increase in 2 times, after the Jets advance to the end of the furrow, and stabilization of waste Jet flow reduced to its original size. Increased irrigation Jet in the middle of watering you can lengthen the furrow irrigation and improve the evenness of its moisture. The specified lengths and irrigation furrows jets slight flush the soil at the beginning of the furrow and accumulation of soil smytoj in the end of the furrow. Takeaway soil outside irrigation plot is negligible and is for irrigation season not more than 0.8, 1mm soil layer or 8,10cm/ha. Some violations of microrelief dicofol and accumulation of soil recovered operating design. For carrying out irrigations on steep slopes should be improved on-farm irrigation network. On-farm irrigation network should provide clear irrigation water flow management (Table 2). Most meets these conditions tubular irrigation network, consisting of closed distribution pipelines and irrigation pipelines with holes. For example, the author described the results of the Experimental research natural area and Embedded Development Institute Erosion and irrigation NASA fully closed irrigation network to irrigate orchards and vineyard on the square 8.3ha and polustacionarnaja irrigation network has become acceptable to solve problems. Because samonapornaja polustacionarnaja irrigation network is recommended for irrigation of crops on large slopes (0.008.0.3.) for the distribution of water in furrows here apply polyethylene piping (hoses) diameter 100-160mm [7-9].

Table 2: The optimum length of furrow irrigation and Jet.

Polustacionarnaja irrigation network versus temporary irrigation network in earthen channel allows to 20-25% to save irrigation water in 2-3 times increase labour productivity in the fields, on 10-15% improve land use, support optimal irrigation regime and due to this the 25-30% boost cotton yield. Even more technically perfect and cost effective closed irrigation network for irrigation of vines and orchards. Technical entity is closed irrigation network in earthen channel system consisting of a stationary distribution and irrigation pipelines with control valves and progressive irrigation technique developed in Institute of Erosion and irrigation NASA. Closed network allows operatively and given technology to supply water to any part of the irrigated array. New irrigation technology of closed irrigation network allows successfully combine the necessary variability irrigation jets with a constant flow of water supplied in the Brigade. This technique is achieved with simultaneous work of two or three or more irrigation pipes, one of which works with a maximum flow rate, and the rest with a minimum consumption. Estimated diameter of irrigation holes allow to strictly dose costs irrigation jets in the furrows.

Conclusion

From the above it follows that the benefit of micro-irrigation furrow is to reduce soil erosion, uniform spacing by the width of the hydration and along the length of the field, reducing surface discharge and increase productivity

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Lupine Publishers | Climate change Mitigation and Adaptation through Biotechnology Approaches: A review

  Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Abstract

Climate change associated factors including temperature increases, changes in rain fall pattern and occurrence of pest and diseases negatively influence agricultural production, productivity and quality. Climate change effects particularly in region suffer persistent soil and water resource scarcity significantly increases production risk. The effects of climate change on agriculture may depend not only on changing climate condition, but also on the ability to adapt through changes in technology and demand for food. Biotechnology positively reduced the effects of climate change by using modern biotechnology. Modern biotechnology through the use of genetically modified stress tolerant and high yielding transgenic crops also stand to significantly counteract the negative effects of climate change. Convectional biotechnology such as bio fertilizer and energy efficient farming are among reasonable options that could solve problems of climate change. Also this paper deals with the modern technology like omics, system biology and other technology has discussed to combat abiotic stress of plant. Finally, the paper highlighted the current challenges and future perspective of biotechnology for climate change adaptation and mitigation.

Keywords: Biotechnology; Climate change; Omics; System biology; Mcyo biotechnology

Introduction

CAccording to IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), climate change is the mean change or variability of its properties for long period. As per report of IPCC climate change mainly caused by both anthropogenic which include change in land use by human being action and natural forces like accent of solar cycles, volcanic eruption and continental drift [1]. Climate change is one of the chief intimidations to agriculture in the vicinity of futures. Its most apparent effects would be on temperature, precipitation, insect pest and pathogen, weeds soil and water quality. It observed that agricultural activities contribute 25% green houses gas emission and major source of methane (48%) and nitrous oxide (52%) from rice fields [2]. Green house gases are element of both natural and anthropogenic which avert radiation from being to reflect into atmosphere and causing warm environment. These gases mainly emit by industry and other activities like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Sulphur hexaoxide (SF6). In long run their concentration in the atmosphere increased by different activities and lets the global climate changes Kumar et al. 2015.

Adaptation to climate change can be done by reducing the vulnerability of natural and human systems [1]. Climate change mitigation is another policy retort to climate change which reduces the negative impact of climate change through involvement of human action particularly by reducing the concentration of green house gasses either by decreasing the source and increasing their sink (plants). Climate change can be mitigated by reforestation and other sink to remove concentration of CO2 from the atmosphere and shifting from biomass to renewable energy [2]. Crop yield and quality is decreased as frequent and intense precipitation events, elevated temperature, drought, and other type of damaging weather, which is making the challenge of feeding fast growing population intricate Hatfield et al. 2011. To feed the ever increasing world’s population, there must be a need to boost agricultural production.

Agricultural biotechnology involves the practical application of biological organisms, or their sub-cellular components in agriculture. The techniques currently in use include tissue culture, convectional breeding, and molecular marker assisted breeding and genetic engineering. Biotechnology is a promise way for mitigating the negative effects of climate change through reduction of green house gasses Teasury, 2009 use of bio fuels [3], carbon sequestration [4], less use of fertilizers [5], tolerance of a biotic [6] and biotic stress [7]. Under this context the present paper emphasize the intervention of biotechnology in climate change adaptation and mitigation for sustainable yield production and food security.

Role of Biotechnology for Climate Change Mitigation

Reduction GHGS emission

Agricultural practices such as use of synthetic fertilizer, cultivation rice crops, over grazing and deforestation are contributes 25% of Green houses gasses (carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) emission to atmosphere. Biotechnology is one of the most reliable answers to mitigate climate change through use energy efficient farming, carbon sequestration and reduced synthetic fertilizer usage [8]. Planting genetically modified crops has shown significant reduction in the amount of greenhouse gases emitted. This is owing to the fact that since genetically modified crops does not need as much maintenance as regular crops; farmers are not wasting as much fuel to power their equipment, resulting in a reduction of greenhouse gases emitted [9]. This reduction of greenhouse gases emitted is not a negligible reduction. The reduction of these greenhouse gas emissions in 2012 was equivalent to “removing 27 billion kg of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or equal to removing 11.9 million cars from the road for one year” [10]. The simple yet effective implementation of genetically modified crops in farming leads farmers to expend less fuel as a result of not demanding to ride on farm equipment as long, leading to a reduction of the carbon footprint that is left behind.

Use of energy efficient farming

Now a day’s green biotechnology (the creation of more fertile and resistant plant resources by using specialized techniques) has been used in eradicating world hunger by using different technologies which enable the production of more fertile and resistant plants towards both biotic and abiotic stress (Kafarski, 2012). This technology allow farmers to use less and environmental friendly energy and fertilizer, and practice soil carbon sequestration. Production of bio fuels, both from traditional and GMO crops such as oilseed, sugarcane, rape seed and jatropha will help to reduce the adverse effects of pollution by the transport sector [8,11]. Efficient farming will therefore help in cleaning the atmosphere through plantation of perennial non edible oil-seed. Thus, directly get involved in production of bio diesel for direct use in energy sector. Then it blends along with fossil fuels, which helps to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide [12,13].

Carbon sequestration

Carbon sequestration is the uptake of carbon containing substances particularly carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. It helps to collect CO2 from the atmosphere and increase the soil organic carbon content with implication of that increased soil carbon storage mitigates climate change [14]. From this point of view carbon sequestration is one the best way to mitigate climate change impact by sequestering the ever increasing concentration of CO2 from the atmosphere. One way of increasing carbon sequestering is by conservation tillage, any tillage and planting system that covers more than 30% of the soil surface with crop residue after planting to reduce erosion by water there by enhances methane consumption and sequesters soil carbon [15].

Genetically modified crops are led to sequestration million tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. One of the best examples is Roundup Ready TM which is herbicide resistant of soybean was found to sequester 63,859 million tones of CO2 in USA and Argentina [8,16]. The improvement of crops opens door for the farmers to use no till farming practice. In context of climate change mitigation (Table 1), these techniques improve soil quality and anchor carbon in the soil [17]. FAO have quantified the contribution of conservation tillage to carbon sequestration. Soil carbon sequestration for the first decade of adoption of best conservation agricultural practice was seen to decreased 1.8 tons CO2 per hectare per year, with better cycling of nutrients and avoiding nutrient losses among the key benefits to farmer FAO [18].

Table 1: Summary of carbon sequestration impact 1996-2008.

Source: Europa bio, 2009.

Reduced use of synthetic fertilizer

Uses of synthetic fertilizer in agriculture sector have led to contaminate the environment with hazardous toxic chemicals. These synthetic fertilizers contribute for the formation as well as releases of certain green houses gasses (N2O) by bringing from the soil to surrounding atmosphere when they interact with common soil bacteria. Ammonium chloride, Ammonium sulphate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate are the examples of inorganic fertilizers that are responsible for the formation and releases of green house gasses [17]. Biotechnological option bids an advantage to reduce the use of synthetic fertilizer. Nitrogen fixing characteristics of Rhizobium inoculants were improved by using genetic engineering [19]. A bright prospect of non leguminous plants (rice and wheat) being enable to fix nitrogen in the soil as reported by Yan [5] and Saikia [20]. Another strategy is planting crops in the use of nitrogen more efficiently. An example of such crops is genetically modified Canola which has shown significant reduction in the amount of nitrogen fertilizer that lost into atmosphere and leached into soil and water ways, and maximizing the economies of farmers through the improved profitability [8].

Biotechnology for Crop Adaptation to Environmental Stress

The ultimate climate change effects on agriculture are reduction crop yield due to rainfall, extreme temperature, emergence of weeds, occurrence pest and disease Johnsona et al. 2007 (Table 2). One of the possible ways of adapting to such global problem is apply agricultural biotechnologies that combat the negative effects of such changes is by using genetic engineering offer new opportunities for improving stress resistance [21].

Table 2: Modern agricultural biotechnologies for climate change adaptation and mitigation.

Source: Mtui et al. [2].

Adaptation to abiotic stresses

Climate change causes a lot of challenges in agricultural land water uses. Of these challenges, abiotic stress including like salinity, drought, extreme temperatures, and chemical toxicity have negative impact on agriculture production. Climate change creates a gigantic challenge in terms of available agricultural land and fresh water use. The agricultural sector uses about 70% of the available fresh water and this is likely to increase as temperature rises [17]. Furthermore, about 25 million acres of land is vanished each year owed to salinity caused by unsound irrigation technique [18]. It is also estimated that increased salinity in arable land will lead to 30% land uncultivated within 25 years and this number will reach up to 50% by the year 2050 as reported by Valliyodan (2006). Molecular control mechanisms for abiotic stress tolerance are based on activation and regulation of specific stress-related genes. It has been reported by Zhu 2001, that salt tolerant plants also often tolerate other stresses including chilling, freezing heat and drought. Already, a number of abiotic stress tolerant, high performance GM crop plants have been developed. These include tobacco [22]; Arabinopsis thaliana and Brasicca napus [23]; Tomato (Hsieh et al., 2002); rice (Yamanouchi et al., 2002); maize, cotton, wheat and oilseed rape (Yamaguchi and Blumwals, 2005; Brookes and Barfoot, 2006).

These transgenic plants maintained higher photosynthetic capacity and elevated levels of photosynthesis-related enzymes. Recently, a gene encoding aquaporin (NtAQP1) was identified in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and shown to provide protection against salinity stress in transgenic tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) [24]. NtAQP1 plays a key role in preventing root or shoot hydraulic failure, enhancing water use efficiency and thereby improving salt tolerance. Recently, a large body of study shows that plant Polyamines (PAs) are involved in the achievement of tolerance to such stresses as high and low temperatures, salinity, hyper osmosis, hypoxia and atmospheric pollutants [25,26]. I hereby summarized in Table 3 few transgenic plants engineered to make Polyamines for boosted abiotic stress tolerance. Plants may also be engineered to reduce the levels of poly (ADP ribose) polymerise, a key stress related enzyme, resulting in plants that are able to survive drought compared to their non-GM counterparts. Field trial results have shown a 44% increase in yield in favour of such GM crop plants [17]. With the availability of whole genome sequences of plants, physical maps, genetics and functional genomics tools, integrated approaches using molecular breeding and genetic engineering offer new opportunities for improving stress resistance [21].

Table 3: Transgenic plants engineered to synthesize Polyamines for enhanced abiotic stress tolerance.

Source: Sarvajeet and Narendra [51].

Recent technology developments allow studies of such stress responses at a global molecular scale using omics data (metabolome, proteome and transcriptome). The following studies are discussed to highlight good examples of System biology and omics approaches that have been used to identify key genes regulating stress tolerance and then followed with proof of those responses and phenotypes in multiple experiments including field conditions. One of the example is a SNAC1 (NAC transcription factor that induces the expression of a stress-tolerance genes and improves the drought and salt tolerance of rice in the field) gene which was identified from microarray experiments of stress treatments on rice [24]. The transgenic plants exhibited increased sensitivity to ABA and reduced water loss. An exhaustive screen of greater than 1500 transcription factors in Arabidopsis identified nearly 40 transcription factors that when over expressed, improved stress tolerance [27]. One of these transcription factors NF-YB1 was further characterized and shown to display significant drought tolerance in Arabidopsis. Microarray data of this over expressing line showed few differences in gene expression and the genes identified were not known previously to be involved in drought tolerance.

This functional genomics approach provided a new strategy for improving drought tolerance in plants. A homolog of NF-YB1 was cloned in maize (ZmNF-YB2), over expressed and tested for drought tolerance in the greenhouse and field plots. The transgenic maize lines were more droughts tolerant having increased chlorophyll content, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and grain yields. One line consistently had more than 50% yield improvement in drought conditions over two different years. Oh et al. [28] used microarrays to identify 42 AP2 transcription factors whose expressions were affected by stress. The two transcription factors are meticulously linked but have distinct differences in affecting rice phenotype. AP37 responded to drought, salinity, cold and ABA; over-expression improved stress tolerance to all three environmental conditions. AP59 responded improved stress tolerance to drought and salinity only. Both over expressing lines showed improved photosynthetic efficiency under stress conditions.

Mycobiotechnology

Climate change is major challenge that is already affecting people and the environment by changing average global temperature mitigates the negative effects of extreme temperature and precipitation thereby reducing the vulnerability of farmers and ecology by improving the agro ecological resistance [29-38]. Mycobiotechnology is fungal application of biotechnology which is used mainly for solving environmental problems and restore degraded ecosystem. These technique endeavor to use fungi for restoration harmed ecology. Saikia [20] reported that both endo and ectomycorrhizal symbiotic fungi together with actinomycetes have been used as inoculants for regeneration of degraded forests. Myco biotechnology, are part of a larger trend toward using living systems to solve environmental problems and restore degraded ecosystems. Now a day the sciences of myco forestry and myco restoration are part of an emerging field of research and application for regeneration of degraded forest ecosystems [39]. Myco restoration attempts to use fungi to help in restoration of ecologically injured environments. Whether the environments have been damaged from anthropogenic or natural disasters, saprophytic and mycorrhizal fungi can help to navigate the course to recovery.

A number of non-legume woody plants such as casuarinas (Casuartna sp.) and alders (Alnus sp.) can fix nitrogen symbiotically with actinomycete bacteria (Frankia sp.), a phenomenon that is beneficial to forestry and agro forestry [40-42]. Both endo and ectomycorrhizal symbiotic fungi together with actinomycetes have been used as inoculants in regeneration of degraded forests [20]. Consequently, both mycorrhizal fungi and actinorhizal bacteria technologies can be applied with the aim of increasing soil fertility and improving water uptake by plants [18]. A forestation would indirectly contribute to improved agricultural productivity and food security because forests create microclimates that improve rainfall availability. Moreover, forests act as carbon sinks thereby contributing in sequestration and greenhouse reduction effects for climate change mitigation. Consequently, forestry and agro forestry offer the potential to develop synergies between efforts to mitigate climate change and efforts to help vulnerable populations to adapt to negative consequences of climate change [43].

Challenges and Futures Line of Work

Climate change has far reaching implications for food security, health and safety, and approaches are required for adapting to new climates. Impacts of climate change are becoming evident and there is no indication that these will reverse in the foreseeable future; action must be taken now to adapt in a timely manner and prevent unpredictable and undesirable outcomes. The world population, currently at 7 billion, is predicted to increase to 8 billion by 2025 and peak at about 9 billion in 2050 [44-47]. According to Ruane [18] developing countries will need to cultivate 120 million additional hectares by crops for feeding ever increasing populations. Therefore, modern agricultural science should implement to boost crop production. Efforts should be made to incorporate local and conventional biotechnologies with modern biotechnology approaches within national policies and legal frameworks in order to increase resilience of local crop varieties against changes in environmental dynamics Stinger et al. 2009.

Though promising result was obtained from modern biotechnology, abundant applications of biotechnology have not encountered their full potential. Of many challenges the major challenges was presented below.

a) Doubt about the cause of climate variation (Natural or Human made) [48-52].

b) Biotic and abiotic stress threatens for food production to feed ever increasing population [21].

c) Raises questions about public safety issues with related to environment and health including: creation of more rigorous pests and pathogens, exacerbating the effects of existing pests, harm to non-target species, disruption of biotic communities and loss of species and genetic diversity within species [34].

d) Raises ethical and socio - cultural issues like loss of traditional crops and fear of the unknown future [35].

e) The role of Polyamines for the abiotic stress tolerance is just commencement to be understood. A lot of effort is still required to uncover in detail the molecular mechanism of protective role of Spd, Spm and Put in abiotic stress tolerance.

In order to solve the challenges presently faced in development and application of modern biotechnology, governments ought to put in place appropriate bio safety and biotechnology policies and legal frameworks before adopting such technologies [53-57]. Anxieties on negative effects of GMOs have to Science based and should be studied case by case in specifying in details with true evidence. Both conventional and modern biotechnology involvements are needed to elucidate the problem. Polarized thought should be based on science not from self or political interest.

Conclusion

To sum up access to information and expertise in developing countries, where the need to counteract climate change and increase food production is most urgent and will be a key factor in the use of biotechnology for continued production. Plant biotechnology can contribute positively towards climate change adaptation and mitigation through reduction of green houses gas emissions, carbon sequestration, less fuel use and energy efficient farming and reduced artificial use. This measures help to improve agricultural productivity and protecting the ecosystem from extreme weather event. Sound application of modern biotechnology will help to counteract climate related problems and thereby securing crop production for fast growing population. An approach to safe applications of modern agricultural biotechnologies will contribute to increased yield, food security and also it will also significantly contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation initiatives.

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Lupine Publishers | Resistance of Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) Produced from Rubberwood, Radiata Pine and Larch Against Subterranean Termites And White Rot Fungi

 Lupine Publishers | Current Investigations in Agriculture and Current Research

Abstract

Laminated veneer lumbers (LVLs) were fabricated using rubber wood, radiate pine and larch wood. Solid rubber wood was used to serve as control for comparison purpose. All of the wood samples were exposed to subterranean termites and white rot fungi for durability evaluation. The results showed that rubber wood LVL had the highest resistance against both deterioration agents in comparison to control, confirming that the resistance of non-durable wood species could be improved by converting them into LVL.

Keywords: Termites resistance; Fungal resistance; Low density wood; Hardwood; Softwood

Abbrevations: LVL: Laminated Veneer Lumber; PF: Phenol Formaldehyde; AWPA: American Wood Preserves Association; ANOVA: Analysis of Variance; SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.

Introduction

Improper forest management and the rapid population increment have induced the continuous growing of timber demand and subsequently led to timber resources depletion around the world. The supply of high quality raw timbers with large diameter is declining accompanied by increasing timber price due to the aforementioned matter. Rising timber costs had shifted the manufacturer’s attention from solid sawn wood to engineered wood products, for example, laminated veneer lumber (LVL). In order to attain better compression and higher strength of LVL products, wood with lower range of densities are often being used. In US, LVL has been typically constructed from southern pines, western softwoods and yellow poplar [1], while in the case of Malaysia, rubber wood are the most common used materials owing to its readily availability. Never the less, one of the disadvantages of these low density wood species is their poor durability against deterioration agents such as termites and fungi. Therefore, better durability could be anticipated by converting these low density wood into LVL bonded by phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin as PF resin has long been recognized as an effective way to enhance the wood properties [2,3]. To the author’s knowledge, there is little or no information regarding the resistance of LVLs fabricated form low density hardwood and softwoods such as rubber wood (Hevea brasiliensis), radiata pine (Pinus radiata) and larch (Larix spp.) against both subterranean termites ((Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren)) and white rot fungi (Pycnoporus sanguineus). Therefore, this study evaluates and compares the biological resistance of LVLs fabricated from rubber wood, radiate pine and larch with that of solid rubber wood.

Materials and Methods

Nine-ply laminated veneer lumber (LVL) having a dimension of 200 mm longx50mm widthx10mm thick was supplied by Wood Research Institute, Kyoto. These LVLs were fabricated from rubber wood, radiata pine and larch wood using phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin as binder. Solid rubber wood was used as control in this study for comparison purpose. For resistance tests, subterranean termites (Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren) and white rot fungi (Pycnoporus sanguineus) were used. The termites were collected from Bukit Expo, University Putra Malaysia using pine blocks as baits. A total of 40 samples, five samples for each material used, were assigned to both resistance tests (4 materials (solid rubber wood, rubber wood LVL, radiate pine LVL and larch LVL) x2 resistance tests x5 replicates). LVLs and solid rubber wood were cut into dimensions of 20x20x10mm prior to the tests. Termite tests were conducted in accordance to American Wood Preserves’ Association (AWPA) Standard E1-13. 200g of sterilized sand mixed with required amount of distilled water were added into a culture bottle. Each test block was exposed to approximately 1±0.05g of termites comprising 10% soldiers and 90% workers. The cultured bottles were then wrapped with black paper and kept at the room temperature (25±2 ̊C) for 4 weeks. The cultured bottles were examined daily to record the mortality rate of the termites. After 4 weeks of exposure to termites, the test blocks were removed and conditioned until they reached constant weight. The mass of the blocks was weighed and the percentage of weight loss was then calculated using Equation (1).

Weight loss(%)=((W_a-W_b)/W_a)x100 (1)

Where W_a = conditioned weight of the test block before exposure (g) and Wb = conditioned weight of the test block after exposure (g).

The mortality of termites was calculated using the following equation:

Mortality (%) = (Number of dead termites / initial number of termites) x 100 (2)

Decay resistance test against white rot fungi was carried out according to American Wood Preserves’ Association (AWPA) Standard E10-12. LVLs and solid rubber wood were cut into dimensions of 20x20x10mm prior to the test. The cut test blocks were then sterilized in an autoclave at 121 °C for 1 min. Next, the sterilized test blocks were placed on mycelium covered strips and kept in capped culture bottles. The culture bottles were incubated at temperature of 25±3 °C for 12 weeks. At the end of the incubation period, the test blocks were carefully removed and the mycelium was brushed off. The blocks were then conditioned in a conditioning room and weighed once the blocks reached constant mass. The extent of the fungal attack will be expressed as percentage of weight loss using Equation (1). The effects of materials used on termites and fungi resistance were analyzed using statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) procedure for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95 % confident level (P≤0.05). The significant level of the mean values was further analyzed using Duncan’s multiple range tests.

Table 1: Termites’ mortality rate and mean weight losses of samples against both termites and white rot fungi.

Means followed by same letters in the same column are not significantly different at P≤0.05; ±=SD

Results and Discussion

The average weight loss of sample blocks caused by both termites and white rot fungi are summarized in Table 1. The mortality rate of the termites at the end of the test is also listed in the same table. From Table 1, one can see that the larch LVL had the highest weight loss against termites (81.8%), followed by radiate pine LVL (39.6%) and rubber wood LVL (6.1%), while 64.8% of weight loss was recorded in solid rubber wood. It was also observed that all termites (100%) in the culture bottles that contained rubber wood LVL and radiate pine LVL died after 4 weeks of exposure. 48% and 50% mortality rates were observed in the culture bottes that contained solid rubber wood and larch LVL, respectively, suggesting lower resistance against termite attack. Larch LVL had lost higher weight even compared to solid rubber wood, implying that larch wood is more preferred by termites and even in the presence of PF resin, it could still cause severe damage to the wood. This phenomenon could be explained by its lighter density among the materials that used in this study. Larch wood that used in this study has a density of 530 kg/m3, while rubber wood and radiate pine have density of 640kg/m3 and 600kg/m3, respectively. Logically, it is much easier for the termites to nibble softer wood like larch in comparison with harder radiate pine and rubber wood. Rubber wood LVL showed the highest resistant among the three wood species used and the reason could be due to the fact that rubber wood itself contains relatively high amount of formaldehyde content [4]. It is interesting to note that the resistance to termites was prominently improved by converting solid rubber wood to LVL. The fact that rubber wood LVL is more resistance to termites could be explained by the presence of PF resin in the glue line, which imparted some preservative properties to the LVL. Poisonous nature of the phenol and the toxicity of the free formaldehyde released during the exposure period might have caused the death of the termites [5].

According to Table 1, surprisingly, LVL made from radiate pine and larch wood had higher weight loss against white rot fungi (6.8% and 6.0%, respectively) in comparison to rubber wood LVL and solid rubber wood. These findings were in disagreement with Nilsson [6] who suggested that the higher susceptibility of hardwoods is due to their lower lignin content compared to that of softwoods. On the other hand, rubber wood LVL revealed better performance against white rot fungi compared to solid rubber wood, with weight losses of 0.7% and 3.9%, respectively. Similar to the findings against termites, the presence of PF resin might have some influence on the fungi preference. The cured PF resin is very hard and thus made it more difficult for the white rot fungi to grow on the edges of the LVL. Therefore, only the tangential surface was fully colonized by the fungi. Whilst in the solid rubber wood all of the four surfaces were colonized by the fungi resulting in more severe degradation.

Conclusion

Based on the weight loss and mortality rate, rubber wood LVL is the most resistant toward termites among the three species studied in the present work, followed by radiate pine and larch. By converting solid rubber wood to rubber wood LVL, the resistance against termites had improved approximately 10-folds owing to the presence of PF resin glue line which might have toxic effect against termites. On the other hand, both radiate pine and larch LVL are more susceptible to white rot fungi compared to that of rubber wood LVL. In the comparison between solid rubber wood and rubber wood LVL, once again, rubber wood LVL displayed better resistance against white rot fungi. Rubber wood exhibited a superior resistance ability might be due to several factors. One of the probable theories is that the rubber wood contains a substantial amount of formaldehyde which may provide a better resistance towards both termites and white rot fungi. Further study in quantify the amount of formaldehyde in all the wood species used in the study is therefore needed to be conducted to verified the above statement.

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