Lupine Publishers| Phenotypic Correlation Between Egg Weight and Egg Linear Measurements of the French Broiler Guinea Fowl Raised in the Humid Zone of Nigeria

 Lupine Publishers| Current Trends on Biostatistics & Biometrics (CTBB)

Abstract

This study was carried out in Funtua, Kastina State. A total of 119 Eggs of the French broiler guinea fowl were sourced at Songhai Agricultural center Funtua, Kastina State. The eggs were measured for egg linear measurements and egg length and egg width. Data obtained was subjected to statistical package for analysis [1]. The correlations between body weight and body linear measurements were determined using pearsons product moment correlation coefficient (r). Phenotypic correlation between egg weight and egg linear measurements was also determined. Egg weight had positive and significant (P<0.05) correlation with egg length (0.275) and egg width (0.496). The correlation between egg shell index was negative (-0.058). The result shows that Egg weight can be improved by selection for egg length and width French broiler guinea fowl populations.

Keywords: Broiler-Guinea-Fowl; Correlation; Egg Linear Measurement; Egg-Weight

Introduction

Meat and meat products are major sources of high-quality protein and their amino acid composition usually compensates for deficiencies in the staple foods. Production of family poultry is regarded as an alternative way to alleviate poverty and support to ensure food security for socio-economically disadvantaged rural households (Branckaert and Gue’ye, 1999). In third world countries, the guinea fowl production could become much more valuable than it is today (Siana, 2005; Fajmilehin, 2010; Moreki, 2010). It thrives under semi intensive and extensive conditions, forages well, and requires little attention from the farmer (Dahauda, 2007). The guinea fowl also retains many of its wild ancestor’s characteristics, they are hardy and resistant to environmental challenges, produces well in cool and hot conditions (Dahauda, 2007). Compared to chickens, guinea fowls are economically more suitable to tropical regions because of their adaptations to traditional breeding systems (Dahauda, 2007). The potential of the Guinea fowl to increase meat and egg production among low income farmers requires greater attention (Rhissa and Bleich, 2009). Guinea fowls are widely known in Africa (Solomon, 2012) and occur in few areas in Asia and Latin America. Strains newly created for egg and meat production in Europe, notably French broiler and layer guinea fowls show excellent characteristics for industrial scale production [2]. Guinea fowl production as a meat bird has proven to be a viable and profitable enterprise, thus providing opportunity for commercial production in many parts of the globe [2]. A survey indicated that interest in guinea fowl as an alternative poultry and specialty meat bird in the United States appears to be increasing. The French variety of guinea fowl is raised primarily for meat [2]. Although their growth rate is slower than that of broiler chickens, the carcass yield of male and female guinea broilers at 12 weeks of age is about 76.8 and 76.9%, respectively (Hughes and Jones, 1980). In recent studies evaluating the optimum Crude Protein (CP) and Metabolic Energy (ME) for the French guinea fowl broiler, Nahashon (2005) reported carcass yields of about 70% at 8 weeks of age. Genetic and phenotypic correlations are useful in prediction of direct and indirect responses to selection and determination of optimum weight and expected correlated response to selection [3].

The external and internal egg quality traits are significant in poultry breeding, especially for their reproduction of future generations, breeding performance, quality and growth trait of chicks [4]. Egg quality traits determine price directly in commercial flocks and it is usually described in connection with consumer’s right requirements [5]. In meat lines, the productivity and quality of the egg has been reported as an important factor for economic breeding and propagation flock [6]. Egg weight, shell thickness, weight of egg yolk and albumen are important egg traits influencing egg quality when other management conditions and fertility are not limiting factors [7]. Egg quality characteristics are influenced by many factors including genetic, maternal and environmental ones [8]. Genetic differences in egg quality characteristics have been reported to exist between species and between breeds, strains and families within lines [9,10] had reported the possibility of determining some external egg quality traits from egg weight of pharaoh (Black variety) quail. It has also been reported that genetic improvement of correlated traits can be achieved by selection for one of the correlated traits [11] especially if one of the correlation traits has low heritability estimates [12]. The objective of this study was to evaluate the phenotypic correlations between egg weight and egg linear measurements of the French broiler guinea fowl in Nigeria with the intension that this relationship can be exploited for genetic improvement through correlated response to selection.

Materials and Methods

Location of Study

The study was conducted at Funtua in Kastina State. Funtua Local Government Area of Kastina State of Nigeria lies on latitude 11°32’’N and longitude 7°19’’N, the area is warm with an average temperature of 32°C and a relative humidity of 44 %. It has a tropical climate with an average annual temperature of 24.8°C and rainfall of 1024mm with the highest precipitation averaging 277 mm in August and no precipitation in January (0 mm). Its warmest month of the year was May with an average temperature of 29.2°C and the lowest temperature occurring in January (21.9°C). The difference in precipitation between the driest and warmest months was 277mm. Variations in temperatures throughout the year was 7.3°C.

Experimental Design and Procedure

The experimental design used was the completely randomized design (CRD). Eggs of the French broiler guinea fowl strain were sourced at Songhai Agricultural Research Centre, Funtua Katsina State of Nigeria. Parent stock birds from which eggs were collected were raised extensively on free range, feeds were supplemented with grains (maize, millet or wheat) and no medications provided. The French broiler guinea fowl eggs were selected based on visual observation of size, shape, color, cleanliness and uniformity.

Parameters that were measured and data collection

Parameters that were measured include egg linear traits, egg weight, egg shape index. Egg linear parameters were measured with the aid of a Vernier caliper. Egg length was measured by placing the egg vertically between the outer dimension jaws of the Vernier caliper, which were moved together until they secured the egg. The screw clamp was tightened to ensure that the reading did not change while the scale was being read and recorded. Egg width was measured by placing the egg horizontally between the outer dimension jaws of the Vernier caliper, which were moved together until they secured the egg. The screw clamp was tightened to ensure that the reading did not change while the scale was being read and recorded. Egg weights were taken using an electronic digital weighing scale in grams and recorded (Salter mix and measure electronic cooks scale). Egg shell index obtained as a ratio of the egg width and the egg length using the formula derived by Reddy (1979).

Data Analysis

Data was collected on egg weight and egg linear measurements. Data collected was subjected to statistical package [1] for analysis of quantitative data to generate descriptive statistics for desired parameters, the correlations analyses was also done using pearsons product moment correlation coefficient (r) to determine the relationship between egg weight and egg linear measurements.

Results

Egg Weight and Egg Linear Characteristics of The French Broiler Guinea Fowl

Table 1 shows that the French broiler guinea fowl egg weight ranged from 36 g to 48 g with an average egg weight of 40.37±0.32 g, egg length ranged from 4.55 cm to 5.95 cm with average egg length of 4.86±0.32 cm, egg width ranged from 3.00 cm to 4.10 cm with an average egg width of 3.90±0.02 cm and egg shell index of the French broiler guinea fowls was 78.94±1.18 which ranged from 7.78 to 86.00.

Table 1: Mean Egg Weight and Egg Linear Measurement of the French Broiler Guinea Fowl.

Correlation Between Egg Weight and Egg Linear Measurements of The French Broiler Guinea Fowl

The correlation between egg weight and egg linear measurements is presented in Table 2 Egg weight has a significant (P˂0.01) positive correlation with egg length and egg width, a negative correlation with egg shell index. Egg length has a significant (P˂0.01) positive correlation with egg width, negative correlation with egg shell index. Egg width has significant (P˂0.01) positive correlation with egg weight, positive correlation with egg length and egg shell index. Egg shell index was negatively correlated with egg width, significantly (P˂0.01) negative correlated with egg length and a positive correlation with egg width.

Table 2: Correlation between Egg Weight and Egg Linear Measurement of the French Broiler Guinea Fowl.

Discussion

Mean Egg Weight and Egg Linear Measurement of The French Broiler Guinea Fowl

Variations in egg weight, egg length and egg width observed in this study have also been reported by different researchers [13] observed variations on egg weight and egg length of French broiler and domestic polish guinea fowls raised in the temperate region. [14] reported variations in egg weight, egg length and egg width of Fulani ecotype chicken; [15] also reported variations in egg length, egg width and egg diameter in Fulani and T_iv local chicken ecotype. These variations may be due to the inherent differences between the genetic influence of dams, sires and environmental dissimilarities. Egg size is usually related with body weight of laying hens [16]. In this study, the egg weight of the French broiler guinea fowl strain ranged from 36 g to 48 g while the mean weight was 40.37±0.32 g. The value was lower than the mean weight (55.3 g) for French broiler guinea fowl and similar (40.7g) for domestic polish guinea fowl raised in the temperate region reported by [13,16] reported lower mean values of 37.67±0.2 g and 37.91±0.39 g for pearl and black strains of guinea fowls respectively. However, [17] reported a similar range of between 38 g to 45 g for indigenous guinea fowl in Nigeria [2,18,19]. Also reported similar values to the value reported in this research. The differences observed in this study may be attributed to the different breeds and the different plane of nutrition in the population; also, differences in environmental factors such as uncontrolled mating of the French broiler guinea fowl with the indigenous guinea fowl on free range which must have led to the loss in vigor of the French broiler guinea fowl.

Mean egg length value 4.86±0.02 cm was lower than the value (52.3±0.06 cm) reported by [20]. Mean egg width value (3.90±0.02 cm) was lower than the value (4.49±0.03 cm) reported by [20]. The value for egg shape index reported in this study (78.94±1.18) was close to the value reported by Dudusola [21] for guinea fowl in Nigeria. Nowaczewsky [13] reported lower values of 73.7 cm and 74.4 cm for French broiler guinea fowl and polish domestic strains guinea fowl which did not differ significantly. The differences observed may be due to the differences in breeds, nutrition and management practices. The value for egg shape index observed in this study suggests that eggs are less prone to breakage and can make good for hatchability.

Correlation Between Egg Weight and Egg Linear Measurements

The correlation between egg weight and, egg length and egg width were moderately positive and significant (P<0.01). This implies that as egg weight increases, egg length and egg width also increase. The positive correlations observed in this study between egg weight and, egg length and egg width agree with the results of [22,23]. The relationship between egg length and egg width was low and positive. There was an inverse association between egg length and egg shape index. The reason for this relationship is the fact that egg length is the denominating factor in estimating shape index according to Panda [24,25]. This report agrees with reports of Cloprakan [26]. Egg width showed positive correlation with egg shape index. This is because egg shape index is directly related to egg width. The reason could be as a result of the denser part of the yolk occupying the width area which translates to heavier weight of the egg. This result is similar to results by [27-30] who reported positive correlation between egg weight and egg length.

Conclusion

Egg weight had positive correlation with egg weight and length. Genetic improvement of egg weight can be achieved by selection for egg length and width.

Recommendation

Genetic improvement program for egg weight in the broiler guinea fowl populations in Nigeria can be achieved by selection for egg width and length.

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Lupine Publishers| Corrosion of Snails in H2CO3 Medium and Their Protection by Aloe Vera

 Lupine Publishers| Modern Approaches on Material Science (MAMS)

Abstract

Snails are beautiful creation of nature. They occur in rivers as well as ponds. But these sources of water are contaminated by effluents, pollutants, acid rain, particulates, biological wastes etc. They can change the pH of water. Water is absorber of carbon dioxide and it converts carbon dioxide into carbonic. Other above-mentioned wastes also increase the concentration of H+ ions in water. They produce hostile environment for snails. The outer part of snails is made of CaCO3. It produces chemical reaction in acidic medium and corrosion reaction is accelerated thus deterioration starts on the surface of snails. This medium their survival becomes miserable. For this work corrosion of snails study in the pH values of water is 6.5 in H2CO3 environment. The corrosion rates of snails were calculated by gravimetric methods and potentiostat technique. Aloe Vera was used for corrosion protection in acidic medium. The surface adsorption phenomenon was studied by Lungmuir isotherm. Aloe Vera formed thin surface film on the interface of snails which adhered with chemical bonding. It confirmed by activation energy, heat of adsorption, free energy, enthalpy and entropy. The results of surface coverage area and inhibitors efficiency were indicated that Aloe Vera developed strong protective barrier in acidic medium.

Keywords: Corrosion; Snails; Aloe vera; Carbonic acid; Potentiostat; Thin film formation

Introduction

Corrosion occurs in living organisms [1]. The animals’ outer layer is created by calcium carbonate [2] to corrode in acidic environment. Corrosive substances interact with living organism [3] to produce corrosion cell which is exhibited autoredox with snails [4] and disintegrated their outer layers. It observed that carbon dioxide [5,6] reacts with water to form carbonic which produce hostile environment [7] for snails and [8] Ocean water [9] is major absorber of carbon dioxide to change pH. Carbonic acid interacts with snails to exhibit chemical thus calcification [10] starts on their surface. The oxides of Sulphur [11] dissolve in water to produce sulphrous and sulphuric acid. These acids produce corroding [12] effect with snails. Oxides of nitrogen [13] absorb water to form nitrous and nitric acids and they generate corrosive environment for molluscs [14] Acid rain [15] can change pH of water and produce acidic medium for snails. Industrial wastes and human wastes contaminate water sources and alter the pH values of water in this way it makes water corrosive for snails and molluscs. The temperature [16] of the earth is increasing due to global warming thus water sources temperature is also increased and snails [17] undergo corrosion reaction. Various types of techniques use for corrosion protection [18] like anodic and cathodic protection, galvanization and electroplating, dipping [19] anodization, spray, nanocoating and inhibitors action. Aloe Vera is used for skin corrosion protection in acidic environment. Snails’ corrosion [20] can be control by inhibitor action of Aloe Vera in above mentioned environment. Aloe Vera form a thin barrier on the surface of snails and it is confirmed by activation energy, heat of adsorption, free energy, enthalpy and entropy and these thermal parameters results is noticed that Aloe Vera has good inhibition properties in acidic medium. It forms complex barrier on the surface of snails.

Experimental

Snails dipped into carbonic acid solution which pH value was 6.2. The corrosion rates of snails were determined by gravimetric method at mentioned periods 1,2,3,4 and 5 years at 288,298,303,308 and 3130K temperatures without use of Aloe Vera. Aloe Vera was used as inhibitor in carbonic acid medium and the calculated of corrosion rate of snails above mentioned years and temperatures at 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90M concentrations. Potentiostat 324 model used to determine the corrosion potential, corrosion current density at different temperatures and concentrations. These results were obtained by application of calomel electrode as auxiliary electrode and Pt reference electrode. The snail kept between these electrode and external current passed through without and with inhibitor. The results were noticed that anodic current decreased and cathodic current increased by the use of Aloe Vera. The gravimetric method corrosion rate results were approximated to potentiostat corrosion obtained results.

Results and Discussion

The corrosion rate of snails were determined by without and with Aloe Vera in mpy (miles per year) at different temperatures, concentrations and times in years by the use of formula K=534XΔW/D A t (where ΔW is weight loss in g, A is area in sq inch, t is immersion time in year). The dipping times were 1,2,3,4 and 5 years and temperatures are 288,298,303,308 and 3130K without inhibitors corrosion rate of snail is calculated and their values were recorded in Table 1. The addition of Aloe Vera in carbonic acid medium and corrosion rate of snail calculated at 288,298,303,308 and 3130K temperatures and 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90M concentrations and its values were mentioned in Table 1. It observed that without action of inhibitor corrosion rate of snail increased as duration of times and temperatures were increased and, but its values were decreased after addition of Aloe Vera such types of trends noticed in Figure 1 K Vs t, Figure 2 K Vs T and Figure 3 K Vs C. The surface coverage area and inhibitor efficiency were calculated by formula θ= (1-K/Ko) and %IE= (1-K/Ko) X100 (where Ko corrosion rate without inhibitor and K corrosion rate with inhibitor) and their values were given in Table 2. The surface coverage area and inhibitor efficiency were calculated by formula θ= (1-K/Ko) and their values were given in Table 2. The results of Table 2 were shown that surface coverage area and percentage inhibitors efficiency were enhanced when inhibitors added at different temperatures and concentrations as per year. Such types of trends were noticed in Figure 4 θ Vs T and Figure 5 θ Vs C.

Figure 1: K Vs t for snails at different years.

Figure 2: K Vs T for snails at different tempertaures.

Figure 3: K Vs C for snails at concentations.

Figure 4: θ Vs T for snails in Aloe Vera.

Figure 5: θ Vs C for snails in Aloe Vera.

Table 1: Corrosion rate of snail absence and presence of Aloe Vera in H₂CO₃.

Table 2: Surface coverage area develop by Aloe Vera on the snails in H₂CO₃.

The percentage inhibitors of Aloe Vera at different temperatures and concentrations as one-year interval were calculated by %IE= (1-K/Ko) X100 (where Ko corrosion rate without inhibitor and K corrosion rate with inhibitor) and the values were written in Table 3. The results of Table 3 were depicted that percentage inhibitors efficiency were increased as temperatures and concentration were enhanced. Such types of trends also observed in Figure 6 %IE Vs T and Figure 7 %IE Vs C. Surface adsorption phenomenon was studied by activation energy, heat of adsorption, free energy, enthalpy and entropy. Activation energy was determined by formula K=A e-Ea/RT (where K is corrosion rate, Ea is activation energy and T is absolute temperature without and with action of Aloe Vera at different temperatures and concentrations and their values were recorded in Table 4. It observed that activation energy increased without inhibitors but its values decreased after addition of inhibitors. These results were shown in Table 4 which indicated that inhibitors adhered on snails by chemical bonding and their values were obtained by Figure 8 plotted logK Vs 1/T. Heat of adsorption values were found to be negative which indicated that Aloe Vera was shown an exothermic reaction in H2CO3 medium. It adsorbed on the surface of snail by chemical bonding. The values of heat of adsorption were determined by Langmuir isotherm log(θ/1-θ) = logA +logC-q/2.303RT and Figure 9 plotted log(θ/1-θ) Vs1/T and Figure10 plotted against log(θ/1-θ) Vs logC and their values were recorded in Table 4.

Figure 6: %IE Vs T for snails in Aloe Vera.

Figure 7: %IE Vs C for snails in Aloe Vera.

Figure 8: logK Vs 1/T for snails in Aloe Vera.

Figure 9: log(θ/1-θ) Vs 1/T for snails in Aloe Vera.

Figure 10: log(θ/1-θ) Vs logC for snails in Aloe Vera.

Table 3: Inhibition efficiency develop by Aloe Vera in H₂CO₃.

Table 4: Thermal parameters of Aloe Vera with Snails.

Table 5: Potentiostatic results of snails for Aloe Vera.

Free energy of inhibitor Aloe Vera was calculated by equation ΔG=2.303 log(33.3K) and their values were given in Table 4. Their values noticed that inhibitor action a chemical reaction because free energy values were negative, and their values mentioned in Table 4. Enthalpy of used inhibitors was determined by transition state equation K=RT/Nh eΔS/R e-ΔH/RT and its values were recorded in Table 4. These values indicated that inhibitor’s Aloe Vera boned with snail by chemical bonding. Entropy of Aloe Vera was determined by equation by ΔG = ΔH – TΔS and their values were mentioned in Table 4. Their values were shown that deposition of Aloe Vera on the surface of snail was an exothermic process. It formed stable barrier on the surface of snail. All five values of thermal parameters plotted against T in Figure 11 and Figure 12 against C. The corrosion potential, corrosion current density and corrosion rate were determined by the equation ΔE/I=1/2.303 βaβc/(βa+βc) and C R(mpy)=0.1288 Ic (mA/cm2) XE/ρ and values were recorded in Table 5. It observed that without inhibitor corrosion potential and corrosion current were decreased but after addition of Aloe Vera corrosion current densities were increased. It also reduced the corrosion potential and corrosion current. The corrosion rate calculated by potentiostat technique and their values were tallied with the corrosion rate determined by gravimetric method. Corrosion potential versus corrosion current density was plotted in Figure 13. This plot indicated that anodic current reduced as addition of inhibitor but cathodic current enhanced Table 5.

Figure 11: Themal energies Vs T for Aloe Vera with Snails.

Figure 12: Thermal energies Vs C for Aloe Vera with snails.

Figure 13: ΔE Vs Ic for snails with Aloe Vera.

Conclusion

Snails’ corrosion occurs due to change the pH of water. Water pH is altered by contamination effluents, industrial polluters, and various types of wastes and acids rain. Snails outer layers are constructed by calcium carbonate. In acidic medium calcification starts on their surface by chemical process. It produces pitting, stress and crevice corrosion. For the protection of such types corrosion Aloe Vera is used as inhibitors. Aloe Vera forms thin film on the surface of snails. The thin film formation is confirmed by thermal parameters like activation energy, heat of adsorption, free energy, enthalpy and entropy. Aloe Vera surface adsorption phenomenon on snails is also satisfied by Langmuir isotherm. Aloe Vera is reduced the concentration of H+ ions and enhance the concentration of oxygen molecules. It is nitrogen containing rich organic compounds which capture H+ ions and less H2 gas is released thus corroding effect of snails suppressed.

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Lupine Publishers| Synthesis and Anxiolytic Activity of 2- (Substituted)-5-[(N-Benzotriazolomethyl)-1,3, 4-Thiadiazolyl]-4-Thiazolidinone

 Lupine Publishers| Drug Designing & Intellectual Properties International Journal (DDIPIJ)

Abstract

1,2,3- Benzotriazole (BTA) is a heterocyclic compound with three nitrogen atoms. It is a polar and colourless compound which can be used for its great versatility. The enormous investigations on derivatives of benzotriazole reveal wide applicability of this molecule for tagging and delivering huge number of heterocyclic nuclei. In the present work synthesis of several derivatives of 2-(substituted)-5-[(n-benzotriazolomethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazolyl]-4-thiazolidinone has been synthesized and are evaluated for their anxiolytic activity. The antianxiety activities of the synthesized derivatives were evaluated using EPM test and Bright and dark box test experimental models of anxiety. All results were expressed as mean± standard error mean (SEM) and analysed by one-way ANOVA. Post-hoc comparisons were performed by applying Dunnefs test. P <0.05 was considered statistically significant

Keywords: Benzotriazole; Thiadiazole; Thiazolidinone; Anxiolytic Activity; Anxiety; Elevated Plus Maize; Bright and Dark Arena

Abbrevations: IP: Intraperitoneally; IAEC: Institutional Animal Ethics Committee; SEM: Standard Error Mean

Introduction

1,2,3- benzotriazoles were reported to have potential fungicidal [1] and antibacterial activity [2]. Similarly 1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives were also reported to possess fungicidal, herbicidal, bactericidal [3], pesticidal, insecticidal, antihistaminic, antiamoebic [4], CNS depressant, antihypertensive, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, analgesic [5], anti-inflammatory [6] and agonist for 5-Ht receptor [7]. 4-thiazolidinone nucleus has also occupied a unique place in the field of medicinal chemistry due to its wide range of biological activities like antibacterial, anticancer [8], Respiratory, syncytial, virus Inhibitor [9], anticonvulsant [10], sciatic nerve blocking, local anaesthetic, inhibitors of human (CK2) protein kinase [11], hypnotic, fungicidal, cysticidal, anti leukemic and antioxidant activity. In view of potential biological activities of benzotriazole, thiadiazole and 4-thiazolidinone an attempt has made to unite these nuclei together and synthesize some new derivatives of benzotriazole (X^XJ to probe how far these combinations could develop anxiolytic activity. The procedure of synthesis has been outlined in Figure 1.

Anxiety is a normal emotional response which when chronic or severe becomes pathological and can aggravate cardiovascular and psychiatric disorders [12]. Despite the development of new molecules for pharmacotherapy of anxiety, the treatment is challenging as they produce various side effects or exhibit tolerance on continuous use.

Materials and Methods

The chemicals and reagents used in this were of AR and LR grade. They were procured from CDH, Hi-Media, Merck, Sigma Aldrich and Ranbaxy. The melting points of the synthesized compounds were determined by using Thiel's melting point apparatus (open capillary tube method) and all the compounds gave sharp melting points and are uncorrected. Purity of the compounds was ascertained by thin layer chromatography using silica gel-G as stationary phase and appropriate mixtures of the following solvents as mobile phase: n-butanol, glacial acetic acid and water. The spots resolved were visualized using iodine chamber. The IR spectra of the synthesized compounds were recorded on a Fourier Transform IR spectrophotometer (Perkin Elimer BX-II) in the range of 400-4000 using diffuse reflectance system and values of vmax are reported in cm^-1. 1H NMR spectra were recorded on Bruker Av- II 400 MHz NMR spectrometer and chemical shifts (5) are reported in ppm downfield from internal reference Tetramethylsilane (TMS). Mass spectra were recorded on Shimadzu LC-MS model 2010A. Elemental analysis of the newly synthesized compounds was carried out using Euro - E 3000 series elemental analyzer. 2-(substituted)-5-[(n-benzotriazolomethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazolyl]-4- thiazolidinone were prepared as per the method described in the literature [13-15]. The Synthetic Procedure involved the following six steps as stated below.

i. Step 1: Synthesis of Benzotriazole: In a mixture of 11.5 ml glacial acetic acid and 30 ml water, 0.1M o-phenylenediamine was dissolved and then added a solution of 0.1 M NaNO₂ in 15 ml of water, stirred continuously for 15 minutes. The temperature was maintained at 120C, chilled in ice bath and product (i) was collected by filtration. The yield obtained was 85% and M.P. was 990C.

ii. Step 2: Synthesis of N-Benzotriazolacetate: A mixture of product (i) 0.1M, ethylacetate (0.1M) and 0.3 gm of K₂CO₃ in 60 ml of acetone was stirred of 10 hrs. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. A solid m ass was produced which gave needle shaped crystals after recrystallization from the mixture of chloroform and ether (8:2 % V/V). The yield obtained was 70% and M.P. was 400C.

iii. Step 3: Synthesis of N-Benzotriazol Acetyl Thiosemicarbazide: The crystals obtained from step II (0.08M) and thiosemicarbazide (0.08M) were taken in 50 ml of ethanol, stirred for 6 hrs and then refluxed for 3 hrs. The yellow coloured compound was obtained after recrystallization from the mixture of chloroform and hexane (9:1 %V/V). The yield was 60% and M.P. 1030C.

iv. Step 4: Synthesis of 2-Amino-5-(N- Benzotriazolomethyl)-1,3,4-Thiadiazole: Compound iii (0.08M) was added in conc. H₂SO₄ and kept overnight at room temperature, then neutralized with ammonia and extracted with ether. The ether was distilled off and the product recrystallized from methanol, the yield was 52% and M.P. 1210C.

v. Step 5: Synthesis of 2-Benzylidenylamino-5-(N- Benzotriazolomethyl)-1,3,4-Thiadiazole: Compound iv (0.02M), carbonyl compound (R₁R₂C=O) (Table 1) and glacial acetic acid (2ml) were refluxed in 50 ml methanol for 8 hrs. Solvent was distilled off and product recrystallised from the mixture of benzene and chloroform (1:6 %V/V). M.P. was 1290C and the yield was 50%.

Table 1:R₁ and R₂ values for compound χ_t to χ₆.



Figure 1:



vi. Step 6: Synthesis of 2-(Phenyl)-5-[(N-Benzotri- azolomethyl)-1,3,4-Thiadiazolyl]-4-Thiazolidinone: The compound (v) 0.01M and mercapto acetic acid (10ml) with a pinch of anhydrous ZnCl₂ were added in 30 ml of tetrahydro-furan and refluxed for 12 hrs on water bath. The product was separated and recrystallised from ethanol. The M.P. was 1380C and yield was 58%. The purity of synthesised compounds were established by TLC using 2% silica gel G, n-butanol: glacial acetic acid: water (4:1:5). The M.P. of synthesized compounds χ₁ to χ₆ was found to be 1380C, 1300C, 1630C, 1560C, 1220C and 1260C respectively (Figure 1).

Structures of the compounds were established on the basis of C, H and N analysis reports, IR and 1H-NMR spectra (Table 2).

Table 2: Spectra! data of 2-(substituted)-5-[(n-benzotri- azolomethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazolyl]-4-thiazolidinone.



(a) Interpretation of IR spectra:



(b) Interpretation of 1H-NMR spectra:

Determination of Anxiolytic Activity

Methods

Preparation of DMF (Dimethylformamide) Suspension of Synthesized Compounds: All synthesized compounds were dissolved in DMF and used as a suspension in physiological saline containing 2 drops of Tween 80 and produce a final conc. of 0.2 mg/ml. The standard drug used for this study was diazepam. Drugs were administered intraperitoneally (IP) in a constant volume of 1 ml/kg, 60 min before experiments were carried out.

Animals: Adult male Swiss albino mice weighing 25-35g obtained from our animal house. The animals were housed at 24±20C with 12: 12 h light and dark cycle. They had free access to food and water. The animals were acclimatized for a period of 7 days before the study. The experimental protocol was approved by the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC) of Institute of Pharmacy, Bundelhand University, Jhansi (U.P.) India. The animals were used according to the CPCSEA guidelines for the use and care of experimental animals.

Experimental Design: On the day of the experiment, the animals were divided randomly into control and experimental groups (n=6). Group 1 received the vehicle, normal saline (10ml/kg) and served as the control group, group 2 received the standard drug diazepam (2mg/kg) and group 3 to 8 received DMF suspension of synthesized compounds (X₁ to X₆) (Table 3). Drugs were administered to the animals 60 minutes prior to the evaluation in acute study, for chronic study once daily for a period of 10 days. Behavioural evaluation was carried out 60 minutes post drug administration on the 10th day. The antianxiety activity of the test drug was evaluated using EPM (elevated plus maze) test and Bright and dark box test experimental models of anxiety.

Table 3: Experimental design.

Evaluation of Antianxiety Activity

Elevated Plus Maze Test

According to the method of Kulkarni SK et al. [16] The wooden maze consisted of two open arms (50cmx10cm) and two closed arms of (50cmx10cmx40cm). The arms of same type were opposite to each other with a central square of 10cm.The maze was elevated to a height of 50cm above the floor. Each animal was placed in the centre square of plus maze, facing one of the open arms. The number of entries into and the time spent in open and closed arms in a 5 min period was noted.

Bright and Dark

The apparatus consisted of an open top wooden box. Two distinct chambers, a black chamber (20x30x35cm) painted black and illuminated with dimmed red light and a bright chamber (30x30x35cm) painted white and brightly illuminated with 100 W white light sources, were located 17 cm above the box. The two chambers were connected through a small open doorway (7.5 x5cm) situated on the floor level at the centre of the partition [17].

Behavioural Assessment

Each animal was tested initially in plus maze and, then, in bright and dark arena paradigm in a single setting. In acute study 60 min after and in chronic study 60 min after the last dose on the 10+ day of drug or vehicle administration, each animal was placed in the centre square of the plus maze, facing one of the open arms. The number of entries into and the time spent in open and closed arms and the number of rears in each arm in a five-minute period was noted. Following the elevated plus maze test, the animal was placed at the centre of the brightly lit arena in the light and dark box. The number of entries into and the time spent in the bright arena, the number of rears in the bright arenas were noted. Following each trial, the apparatus were cleaned to mask the odour left by the animal in the previous experiment. Hand operated counters and stop watches were used to score the behaviour of animals.

Statistical Analysis

All results were expressed as mean± standard error mean (SEM) and analysed by one-way ANOVA. Post-hoc comparisons were performed by applying Dunnet's test. P <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Table 4: Acute effect of synthesized compounds on behaviour of mice in elevated plus maze.

Results

Elevated Plus-Maze

A perusal of Table 4 shows that compared to the standard drug, the synthesized compounds X₂ and χ₃ significantly increased open arm activity, increasing the duration of time spent and number of entries in open arm in EPM test compared to control in acute study but in chronic study the doses of χ₂ and χ₃ produced a greater increase in duration of time spent and number of entries in open arm in EPM test compared to both control and standard drug diazepam. χ₂ had produced better effect than χ₃ and Diazepam in chronic study (Tables 4 & 5).

Table 5: Chronic effect of synthesized compounds on behaviour of mice in elevated plus maze.

Values represented mean±SEM (n=6), *P<0.05 vs. control, **P<0.05 vs. standard.

Bright and Dark

Diazepam (1mg/kg) treated mice significantly increased the number of entries into the bright arena, the time spent and the rears in bright arena. In acute study, both X₂ and X₃ significantly increased the number of entries into, time spent and rears in bright arena compared to control. X₂ and X₃ both had shown significantly increased number of entries into, time spent and rears in bright arena when compared to control and diazepam in chronic study (Tables 6 & 7).

Table 6: Acute effect of synthesized compounds on behaviour of mice in bright and dark arena.

Values represented mean±SEM (n=6), *P<0.05 vs. control.

Table 7: Chronic effect of synthesized compounds on behaviour of mice in bright and dark arena.

Values represented mean±SEM (n=6), *P<0.05 vs. control, **P<0.05 vs. standard.

Discussion

The two experimental models of anxiety, elevated plus maze and bright and dark arena, are based on the assumption that unfamiliar, non-protective and brightly lit environmental stress provokes inhibition of normal behaviour. This normal behavioural inhibition is further augmented in the presence of fear or anxiety like state. In the elevated plus maze, the open arms are more fear provoking than the closed arms. The ratio of entries, time spent and rearing behaviour in open arms to closed arms reflects the safety of closed arms with relative fearfulness of open arms [18]. The reduction in entry, time spent, total arm entries are the indications of high level of fear or anxiety. Anxiolytic drugs increase the proportion of entries, time spent in open arms. In the bright and dark box paradigm, the brightly lit environment is a noxious environment stressor that inhibits the exploratory behaviour of rodents. Reduction in the number of entries, time spent and rearing behaviour in the bright chamber was regarded as markers of anxiety. Rearing reflects an exploratory tendency of the animal that can be reduced due to a high level of fear [19]. In the present study, the compounds X2 and X3 significantly increased the duration of time spent and number of entries in open arm, time spent in closed arm in EPM test indicating anxiolytic activity in both acute and chronic studies. They also showed an increase in the time spent and the rears in bright arena in the bright and dark arena paradigm. Anxiolytic activity of X2 was found to be greater than diazepam in chronic study.

Conclusion

The derivatives of benzotriazole (X₁ to X₆) were synthesized with the objective to develop better anxiolytic agents with maximum percentage of yield and optimal anxiolytic activity. The results of the present study suggest that the synthesized compounds X₂ and X₃ have anxiolytic activity better than Diazepam. It was observed that halogen substituted aromatic compounds were more active than unsubstituted aromatic compounds and aromatic compounds were more active than alkyl substituted compounds. Further investigations with appropriate structural modification of title compound may result in therapeutically useful products. Further studies are required to elucidate the possible mechanism of anxiolytic activity and its usefulness in human beings.

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Lupine Publishers | Prevalence of Postpartum Depression and Associated Factors among Postnatal Women Attending At Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Harar, East Ethiopia, 2015/2016

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Reproductive System

Abstract

Background: Postpartum depression is a common occurrence which is often undiagnosed when symptoms are not severe and may progress into severe or chronic state if unrecognized and untreated. Being the most frequent form of mental illness in the postpartum period, it can begin as early as two weeks after delivery. It is also the most common complication of childbearing and as such represents a considerable public health problem affecting women and their families.

Objective: To assess the prevalence of postpartum Depression and associated factors among postnatal women who are attending at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Eastern Ethiopia, 2016.

Methods: The study was conducted by using institutional based cross-sectional study design and non probability convenience sampling technique, until the required sample size of 122 was attained. The data was collected by using a structured, pre designed questionnaire from February 22/02/2016-March 22/03/2016. The data was analyzed manually and presented by using frequency table and graphs.

Results: A total of 122 postnatal mothers were involved into this study and all of them were analyzed. This study found a prevalence of PPD one week after delivery at HFSUH was 13.11%. Recent pregnancy was reported as unwanted by 2.46% and partner’s support was perceived as inadequate by 19% of the respondents and Caesarian section was 38.52%. Almost all, 95.90 % exclusively breast fed their infants and minor illnesses had occurred to 13.11% of the infants. Premature baby 5.74%, poor satisfactions with medical care 22.13%, family history of mental illness 3.28% were strongly associated with PPD. The other factors such as neonate illness, residence, desired new born sex, hypertension, and hyper emesis had also their own significant association. Educational status, number of birth, age, place of delivery and sex of new born had no significant association with PPD.

Conclusion: This study found a prevalence of PPD among women delivering at HFSUH, one week after delivery was 13.11% which is a significant high value and compared well with other studies. The findings in this study may form the bases for the need of routine screening of PPD in the post natal care especially those mothers with unplanned pregnancy, premature baby, poor support systems, poor satisfaction with medical care, family history of mental illness, and stressful life events which were highly associated with PPD. This would help prevent PPD at all levels hence a healthy mother.

Recommendation: Psychiatry staff of HFSUH should collaborate the services given for psychiatric cases and other gynecologic and obstetrics as well as general medical conditions. Routine screening for mental illness just like other reproductive problems for mothers attending hospital during delivery and after delivery is necessary. Finally, ministry of health should design policy that interactively provides mental illness of mother and their reproductive problems.

Ethical consideration: The study was conducted after ethical clearance had been given from Haramaya University College of Health and Medical Science. Ethical clearance letter was submitted to Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital and management body permitted to conduct research.

Introduction

Background

Postpartum depression also known as postnatal depression is a non psychotic depressive disorder of variable severity and it can begin as early as two weeks after delivery and can persist indefinitely if untreated. Most of the time, it occurs within the first three month after delivery. The illness can cause distress and impair a mother’s ability to carry out her normal tasks, care for herself and care of her baby. It is a clinical depression with symptoms that can include a feeling of fatigue, social withdrawal, sadness, changes in sleeping and eating patterns, and guilt (including related to ability to care for the infant), crying, loneliness and low self esteem lasting longer than two weeks or beginning two weeks or more after delivery [1,2]. The term “Post¬partum Depression” encompasses several mood disorders that follow childbirth. Important developments in the study of PPD include its association with symptoms of anxiety and bipolar disorders in addition to those of depression [2].

Becoming a mother can be difficult this is due to a major psychological shift from viewing oneself as a woman who is pregnant to viewing oneself as a new mother. This major emotional shift may create problems. Following childbirth, seesawing emotions and heightened emotional responses may occur [3]. The biological mechanism of PPD is believed to coincide with that of major depressive disorder. Depression in general is a disease of neuronal circuit integrity, which has been shown in studies by a reduction in brain volume of individuals diagnosed with major depressive disorder. Interestingly, the amount of volume loss correlates directly with the number of years of ill¬ness. Stress and depression act to reduce numerous brain pro¬teins that promote neuronal growth and synapse formation, and antidepressant medications have been shown to increase these and other protective proteins, thereby reversing the mechanism of depression.

These underlying neurobiological changes result from developmental interactions between genetic susceptibility and environmental factors (i.e., the psychosocial stresses ac¬companying motherhood) rather than a simple “chemical im¬balance,” as previously believed. Specifically, the neurobiolog¬ical effects of rapid postpartum hormone withdrawal predispose women with established risk factors to PPD. An interesting distinction that makes PPD unique from other depressive disorders is that it is marked by a prominent anxi-ety component. This may be why so many cases of PPD are missed, as many clinicians use the Patient Health Question¬naire which covers depressed mood and dysphoria, but not anxiety-as their primary screening technique. The stress of caring for a newborn or even the circumstances surrounding labor and delivery may precipitate the first symp¬toms of PPD [4].

Multiple risk factors for postpartum depression have been suggested as no single cause has been identified. Personal vulnerability, personal traits and social factors such as unplanned pregnancy occupational instability, single parenthood and marital discord have been cited. The effects of postnatal depression on the mother, her marital relationship, and her children make it an important condition to diagnose, treat and prevent. The mother unable to provide care to her infant as manifested by decreased adherence to regular check up well baby visits and increased frequency health care provider’s visits due to infant problems. Lastly depressed mothers have lower rates of gratification and enjoyment in their mothering role compared with non-depressed mothers. The patterns of symptoms in women with postpartum depression are similar to those in women who have depression unrelated to childbirth apart from the fact that the content may focus on the delivery or baby. Evidence from epidemiological and clinical studies suggests that mood disturbances following childbirth are not significantly different from affective illnesses that occur in women at other times [5,6].

Statement of the problem

Postnatal depression (PND) is a global public health issue. It is the most common complication of childbearing and as such represents a considerable public health problem affecting women and their families. The effects of postnatal depression on the mother, her marital relationship, and her children make it an important condition to diagnose, treat and prevent [2]. Postpartum Depression (PPD) encompasses several mood dis¬orders that follow childbirth. It affects 10-15% of new mothers, but many cases of PPD remain undiagnosed. Thus, prevalence rates in the developing world range from being equal to almost double that of developed countries. Risk factors identified in these studies include previous psychiatric problems, life events in the previous year, poor marital relationship and economic deprivation. Female infant gender was found to be an important determinant of postnatal depression in India but not in South Africa.

These studies found that postnatal depression was associated with high degrees of chronicity, disability and disturbances of mother infant relationship [7]. Postpartum common mental disorders such as depression and anxiety are increasingly recognized for their burden in low resource countries such as Ethiopia. However; the magnitude of postpartum depression in Ethiopia is not well established so identifying magnitude of postpartum depression and associated factors in our country is essential to minimize mental illness that is related to mothers who give birth. Estimates for depression during and after pregnancy have range from 9% to 20%, and for postpartum common mental disorder, the estimates have been as high as 33%, even if these problems are there, there is no good awareness and satisfactory intervention especially for those who live in remote area from the health center [8].

Multiple risk factors for postpartum depression have been suggested as no single cause has been identified. Personal vulnerability, personal traits and social factors such as unplanned pregnancy, occupational instability, single parenthood and marital discord have been cited. Screening for postpartum depression would improve the ability to recognize these disorders and hence necessitate enhanced care that ensures appropriate clinical outcomes [6]. Untreated postpartum depression can have adverse long term effects. For the mother, the episode can be the precursor of chronic or recurrent depression. For her children, a mother’s ongoing depression can contribute to emotional, behavioral, cognitive and interpersonal problems in later life. If postpartum depression is to be prevented by clinical or public health intervention, its risk factors need to be reliably identified, however, numerous studies have produced incomplete consensus on these [5].

This research is relevant because the prevalence of PPD and its associated factors are not well known as well as there is no proper intervention. Determining the prevalence of PPD is critical to manage and prevent further complication. It will also help to identify its impacts on mother and child. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the prevalence of PPD and associated factors; it is expected to sensitize the health care professionals and policy makers on the importance of maternal mental health and the need for routine screening for postpartum depression by disseminating/ reporting the result of the research at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital by the year 2015/16.

Significance of the study

In Ethiopia there are no published researches (up to our reading) on PPD and its associated factors, due to this our study plays an important role to determine and solve the problem by disseminating the result to concerned bodies. This study provides an evidence base from which further studies can be done and compared, not just at this hospital only, but from other hospitals in Ethiopia. It serves as initial to do further research and a pioneering study for our junior students and other investigators toward future studies among related subjects. It also expands our knowledge about the various aspects of PPD among Harar women in order to focus on coming researches. Significance to public health and maternal health practice: This study is expected to unveil and draw the attention of health care practitioners to many ignored aspects of PPD and its associated factors, in order to give them more focus towards the integration of PPD screening during the care of pregnant and postpartum women.

Significant to health care decision makers: The study is expected to urge health care decision makers to consider this important topic – PPD in the planning and delivering of health care services.

Study Objectives

General objective

a. To assess the prevalence of postpartum Depression and associated factors among postnatal women attending at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Harar, Eastern Ethiopia in 2015/16.

Specific Objectives

a. To determine the prevalence of PPD among postnatal women attending at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Harar, Eastern Ethiopia in 2015/16.

b. To identify the factors that associated with PPD among postnatal women attending at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Harar, Eastern Ethiopia in 2015/16.

Methods

Study Area

This study was conducted in Harar, the capital of the Harari national state. Harar is the capital city of Harari Regional state is located in Eastern part of Ethiopia which is 525 Km from Addis Ababa with a total area of 17.20 Km2. According to the regional profile 90% of the region is estimated to be “woinedega” (Between 1000-1500m) and situated at 900, 230 Altitude and 420, 240 longitude and with elevation of 1600 feet above the sea level According to the 2007 census, the regional state of Harari has a total population of 183,415. The region has 77.6% health coverage, two Zonal Hospital MAH and HFSU, one regional public health laboratory and research center and one nursing school. Moreover, there are two other governmental hospital army Hospital and Public Hospital [9]. Among Hospitals HFSUH, Jegola Hospital and Army Hospital provide psychiatry service. Jegola Hospital has 1 0PD and 2 staffs (1BSC, 1 advanced Diploma psychiatric Nurses) and in Army Hospital 1 0PD (1Psychiatry nurse). HFSUH has 7 beds, 2 OPDs, 10 staffs (8BSc psychiatry Nurses, 2 Diploma Psychiatry Nurses, But currently no psychiatrist), and also there are 2 gynecology ward and 1 OPD, 14 obstetrics ward and 6 pediatric [10].

Study design and period

Study design: Institutional based cross sectional study design was used to determine prevalence of postpartum depression and associated factors among postnatal women attending at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital.

Study period: The study was conducted from February 22/02/2016-March 22/03/2016.

Population

Source population: All postnatal mothers who attended at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital.

Study population: A postnatal mother who attended at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital during the data collection period and who’s the data was taken.

Sample size determination and sampling technique

Sample size determination: The formula that we have used to calculate sample size in the study was:

Equation 1:

Where d = margin of error= 5% in case of our study

α = level of confidence (95%- 1.96)

P = Prevalence of point under consideration that taken as 50% because there is no known prevalence.

By this no=sample size

Equation 2:

no = 384

We add Non respondent rate =10%, from this no=423

We Use reduction formula because our total population is less than 10,000 (the average of total post natal

women in the last year on February and this year on January is 170).

Equation 3:

Equation 4:

Sampling technique: Data was taken from patients who are present at a time of data collection, because of this, non probability convenience sampling technique was applied to select study unit among PPD patients.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria:

a. Post natal women who are attending at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital.

b. Age 15-47 or reproductive age group.

c. Ability and acceptance to consent to participate in the study.

Exclusion criteria

d. Patients, who cannot able to communicate,.

e. Patients, who have depression that persist beyond 1 year after giving birth.

f. Patients who are not volunteer to participate in the study.

Study variables

Dependent variable

Postpartum depression

Independent variable

Socio demographic factors:

a. Age

b. Occupation

c. Residence

d. Income

e. Marital status

f. Educational status

g. Pregnancy and birth related factors:

h. obstetric history

i. complication during delivery

j. place and type of delivery

k. whether mother wanted pregnancy to occur

l. medical problem or chronic diseases

m. New born related factors:

n. desired gender of new born,

o. whether the new born has any diseases

p. whether the new born is delivered before 9-month

q. whether he/she is fed by breast or formula or both

r. Maternal and family related factors:

s. relationship with her husband and her family members

t. support and help provided by her husband

u. Psychosocial and psychological factors:

v. personal and family history of mental illness

w. history of depression during the last pregnancy

x. stressful life event like loss of loved one

Data collection procedure

Data collection: Data was collected by using both interview guided structured questionnaire and standard questionnaires by three Data collectors, every data collector interviewed the participants to the questionnaire voluntarily after informed consent has obtained by convincing the patient, their information was confidential.

Data collection instrument: The structured and standard questionnaire which contains the following:

a. Socio-demographic history(age, sex, marital status, education, occupation, residence, income)

b. Pregnancy and birth related factors (obstetric history, complication, place and type of delivery, whether mother wanted pregnancy to occur, medical problem or chronic diseases).

c. New born related factors (desired gender of new born, whether the new born has any diseases, whether the new born is delivered before 9-month, whether he/she is fed by breast or formula or both)

d. Maternal and family related factors(relationship with her husband and her family members, support and help provided by her husband)

e. Psychosocial and psychological factors(personal and family history of mental illness, history of depression during the last pregnancy, stressful life event)

f. Edinburg post natal depression scale

All the above tools were used to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of postpartum depression among post natal women attending at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital.

Data quality control

The quality of data was kept by preparing each and every question related to our specific objectives and we incorporated comments obtained in Amharic language and we conducted it. We were also tried to improve our data by sharing information from advisor and using standard data collection tools. Clear discussion was done by group members about the purpose and procedures of the study. The group members were decided to peruse non respondents by explaining the objective of study clearly. The collected data was checked out for the completeness, accuracy and clarity by principal investigator. This quality checking was done daily after data collection and amendment was made before the next data collection measure.

Data processing and Analyzing

Data processing: The collected data was processed manually and using scientific calculators and the raw data was processed by using tallying sheet, filling mater sheet, editing, cleaning and checking for completion.

Data Analyzing: The data was analyzed by using table, figure, frequency, percentages, and cross tabulation. Finally the finding of the study was summarized, presented, discussed based on the nature of questions. The association of factors was analyzed by calculating odd ratio and chi- square.

Ethical Consideration

The study was conducted after ethical clearance is given from Haramaya University College of Health and Medical Science. Ethical clearance letter was submitted to Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital and management body was permitted to conduct research. The objectives of study were clarified to Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital and informed consent was agreed as well as notified to patients and their information was not observed by other body that was for the sake of research. A patients verbally counseled regarding their ability to chose whether or not they wanted to participate in the study and the fact that they would not be victimized should they chose not to participated.

Results

A total of 122 mothers were interviewed, all were eligible for analysis (with 100% response rate). Results were presented in tables, percentages, and graphs followed by narration as shown below.

Section one: Demographic information:

Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016

Figure 1: Sociodemographic characteristics (religion) of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016. Out of the total participants 51.64% were not employed, 8.20% government employed, 1.64% self employed, 25.41% farmer, 0.82% student, and 12.26% merchant.

As Table 1 show below 47.54% were aged 20-24 years, 28.69% were aged 25-29, 0.82% was single and the rest were married 50.82% were unable to read and write, 22.13% had schooled up to primary level and 64.75% were Oromo. 56.56% of participants were lived in urban and the rest were in rural. 54.10% of the participants had <750 birr per month per individual of the family. Muslims were the majority of them which accounts 75.41%, followed by Orthodox 19.67%, and protestant 4.92% (Figures 1 & 2). Out of the total participants 51.64% were not employed, 8.20% government employed, 1.64% self employed, 25.41% farmer, 0.82% student, and 12.26% merchant.

Figure 2: Sociodemographic characteristics (occupational status) of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

Section two: Pregnancy and Birth related factors:

Table 2: Pregnancy and Birth related factors of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

Table 3: marital and Family relationship satisfactions of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016

As the above Tables 2-6 show that 23.77% of respondent mothers were primigravida (being pregnant for the first time). 30.83% and 69.17% of respondent mothers were primipara (giving birth for the first time) and multipara (giving ≥2 birth). 57.14% of the respondents had 1 miscarriage and stillbirths and the rest had ≥2 miscarriage and stillbirths. 92.62% of respondent mothers had no any problems that faced the rest 7.38% had pregnancy related problems during their last pregnancy. Except 1 mother all the rest mothers gave birth in hospitals. 61.48% of the participating mothers delivered their babies by vaginal delivery, 38.52% delivered their babies by caesarean section, 2.46% reported the use of vacuum during delivery and 2.46% reported episiotomy was done during birth.27.87% and 50.00% of mothers reported receiving very good and good medical care during birth. In contrast, 19.67% & 2.46% reported that the medical care was Satisfactory and poor respectively.

Table 4: common PPD symptoms with respect to EPDS of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016

Table 5: Association between PPD and Sociodemographic variables of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016

Table 6: Association between PPD and Pregnancy and Birth variables of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016

Section three: New born related factors: (these questions are related to your last baby)

Figure 3: New born related factors of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

63(51.64%) of the participating mothers gave birth to a male baby and 59(48.36%) gave birth to a female. When the mothers were asked about the preferred or desired sex of the baby, 91(74.59%) chose a male, 31(25.24%) chose a female (Figures 3 & 4). 16(13.15%) of mothers reported that their baby was ill, but 106(86.85%) of mothers reported that their baby was free from illness. 10(8.20%) of mothers reported that their baby admitted neonate intensive care unit soon after birth, but for the rest. 7(5.76%) of the mothers reported that their baby was premature or delivered before completing 9 months of pregnancy and the rest mothers reported that their baby was full term.117(95.90%) of the mothers reported that breast feeding is the sole feeding type and 5(4.10%) reported using formula feeding exclusively.

Figure 4: New born related factors of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

Section four: Marital and Family Relationship Factors

The participating mothers were asked five questions regarding their satisfaction and evaluation of their relationship with their husband, their own families, their mother’s in-laws and their husband families in general. About 0.83% of respondents had very poor relationships, 1.65% had poor relationships, 14.87% had satisfactory relationships, 53.73% had good relationships and 28.92% had very good relationships with their husband.0.82% of respondents got very poor, 4.96% got poor, 13.22% got satisfactory 52.07% got good and28.92% got very good help and support from their husband.3.28%, 12.30%, 55.72% and 28.70% of respondents had poor, satisfactory, good and very good relationships with their own family respectively. About 4.13%, 14.05%, 55.37% and 26.45% of the respondents had poor, satisfactory, good and very good relationships with their mother’s in-law respectively. 4.13% of respondents had poor, 14.88% had satisfactory, 54.54% had good and 26.45% had very good relationship with their husband family in general.

Section five: psychosocial and psychological history

Figure 5: psychosocial and psychological characteristics of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

Figure 5, Only 1(0.82%) reported having personal mental history and 4(3.28%) having family mental history. The participating mothers were asked about 11 psychosocial stressors and if they had experienced any of them during their pregnancy. Among them 11(9.02%) had experienced at least one stressful life event. The most reported stressor was death of a dear person affecting 6(33.33%) of mothers, followed by recurrent verbal abuse 3(16.67%), financial problems 3(16.67%), accidents or injuries 2(11.11%), physical abuse 2(11.11%), abandon a dear person 1(5.56%) and housing problems 1(5.56%) and the rest stressors such as work place problems, separation or divorce, severe illness of you or dear person and difficulty in dealing with your children accounts zero percent (0%)(Figure 6).

Figure 6: prevalence of stressful life events during pregnancy in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

Section six: Edinburgh Depression Scale

From Table 4.

Prevalence of postpartum depression

According to this result, out of the 122 mothers participated, 16(13.11%) were found to have postpartum depressive symptoms as measured by an EPDS score of ≥ 13. Potential risk factors for PDD were shown below by Tables 7-11. Undesired and unplanned pregnancy, poor satisfaction with medical care, premature new born, poor support provided by husband, poor relationship with husband family, recurrent verbal abuse, and family history of mental illness had strong association with PPD. 16 out of 122 study participants screened positive for postpartum depression as tabulated from a score ≥ 13 on the EPDS (Figure 7).

Table 7: Association between PPD and Pregnancy and Birth related stressors of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

Table 8: Association between PPD and new born related factors of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016

Table 9: Association between PPD and social support and family Relationship variables of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016

Table 10: Association between PPD and mental and psychological variables of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

Table 11: shown below seven of the tested 11 stressful life events during pregnancy was significantly associated with the presence of PPD. These were: abandon a dear person 1(100%) has PPD compared to 12.40% of not reporting this event), recurrent verbal abuse (66.7% had PPD compared to 11.76% of not reporting this event and it had odds of 15), accidents or injuries (50% had PPD compared to 12.50% of not reporting this event and it had odds of 7) and death of a dear person (50% had PPD compared to 11.21% of not reporting this event and it had odds of 7.92). 2. Association between PPD and mental and psychological variables (stressful life events) of the participants in Harar town, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

Figure 7: Prevalence of PPD among mothers attending at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital from February 1-30, 2016.

Factors associated with PPD

a. Socio Demographic Characteristics

Among the total participants those who were from rural had 1.35 odds than urban women. Factors such as age, religion, ethnicity, occupation, marital status, educational status, and income had no significant association with PPD according to this finding. From above table primigravida had odds of 1.55 than multigravida and prim parity had odds of 1.14 than those with milt parity. High Odds ratio of PPD were associated with; mothers who had abortion for the first time 4.67, Caesarean section delivery 2, episiotomy during their delivery 3.47, Unplanned pregnancy 15, and poor satisfaction by medical care 9. Among the pregnancy related problems as shown below by Table 7, high odds ratio of PPD were associated with hyper emesis 5 and hypertension 7. The rest of problems had no significant association with the disorder. Under new born related factors high odds of PPD were associated with desired male sex 6, mothers who have premature newborn 11 and mothers who had baby with health problem 2.6. The other factors had no significant association with PPD [1-14].

As the table below show, the association between family relationship and PPD was tested.PPD (EPDS cut off ≥ 13) was significantly associated with poor husband and marital relationship satisfaction with PPD rate of 38.1% and 8% among mothers reporting poor and good relationship respectively (OR= 7.1), poor husband help and support with PPD 39.13% and 7.70% among mothers reporting poor and good support and help respectively (OR=8.4) and poor mother in-law relationship satisfaction with PPD rate of 36.36% and 8% among mothers reporting poor and good relationship respectively (OR=6.5). Poor relationships with husband’s family in general had odds of 8.4. As table shown below one of mother reported a personal history of mental illness and she had PPD. Family history of mental illness had odds of 7.42. In general high odds of PPD were associated with undesired and unplanned pregnancy, poor satisfaction with medical care, hypertension and hyper emesis, desired new born sex (male), admission of newborn to ICU, premature new born, poor relationship with husband, husband families, mother-in-law, poor support from husband, family history of mental illness, recurrent verbal abuse, accident and death of dear person.

Discussion

Prevalence and its Associated Factors

The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of PPD and its associated factors of mothers who attained at HFSUH. There are also another studies conducted on this topic which done in the different part of the world. Research conducted in Brazil by using cohort study, a total of 1,340 pregnant women were identified. The prevalence of postpartum depression was 16.5%. The adjusted analysis found the risk factors for PPD to include lower socioeconomic status, not living with a partner, previous stressful events [11]. While this study shows the prevalence of PPD was 13.11%. The associated factors that strongly linked with PPD were unplanned pregnancy, premature baby, poor support systems, poor satisfaction with medical care, and family history of mental illness, recurrent verbal abuse, accident and death of loved one.

The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of PPD and its associated factors of mothers who attained at HFSUH. There are also another studies conducted on this topic which done in the different part of the world. Research conducted in Brazil by using cohort study, a total of 1,340 pregnant women were identified. The prevalence of postpartum depression was 16.5%. The adjusted analysis found the risk factors for PPD to include lower socioeconomic status, not living with a partner, previous stressful events [11]. While this study shows the prevalence of PPD was 13.11%. The associated factors that strongly linked with PPD were unplanned pregnancy, premature baby, poor support systems, poor satisfaction with medical care, and family history of mental illness, recurrent verbal abuse, accident and death of loved one. variation might be the difference in sample size, and regional/ culture of society. In addition to this, the research done in France was specific to women with premature baby.

Research conducted in Iran by using cross-section study out of 6,627 women in their postpartum period were identified and screened for possible depression using BDI. Of these, 57.1% were screened possible cases of depression and based on BDI scores, 20% (1324) fell within the mild range of scores, 18.3% (1211) within the moderate range, and 18.9% (1251) within the severe range. Previous history of an affective disorder, history of depression is consistently a strong risk factor for PPD. The research also found a 35.8% prevalence rate of severe depression (based on BDI score) in women with a past history of depression [13]. But in this study the prevalence of PPD was 13.11%. The associated factors that strongly linked with PPD were unplanned pregnancy, premature baby, poor support systems, poor satisfaction with medical care, and family history of mental illness, recurrent verbal abuse, accident and death of loved one.

The other factors such as cesarean section, episiotomy, neonate illness, desired new born sex, hypertension, and hyper emesis had also their own significant association. This great difference is may be due to sample size, screening instrument and geographical location/living circumstance of society might be contributed. Out of the 149 Pakistani women assessed at 12 weeks in the postnatal period, using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) and Personal Information Questionnaire (PIQ),53 scored 12 or above on the EPDS, giving an estimated prevalence of postnatal depression of 36%. Sixty-six percent of the women screening positive in the postnatal period had significant levels of Psychological distress in the antenatal period [14]. In this study the prevalence of PPD was 13.11%.

The associated factors that strongly linked with PPD were unplanned pregnancy, premature baby, poor support systems, poor satisfaction with medical care, and family history of mental illness, recurrent verbal abuse, accident and death of loved one. The other factors such as cesarean section, episiotomy, neonate illness, desired new born sex, hypertension, and hyper emesis had also their own significant association. The variation when compared might be due to timing at which the study was done three months after delivery, multiple screening instrument use, and slight difference in sample size. On the other hand, when we compare this result with similar studies done in Africa which found the prevalence of PPD at Kenya was 10.6% and its associated factors were being unemployment and low household income, were significantly associated with PPD. High Odds ratio of PPD were associated with; sex of infant not desired, being on medication, pregnancy not wanted, prim parity, and been single.

Factors such as age, C/section as mode of delivery were insignificantly associated with PPD [6]. While this study shows the prevalence of PPD was 13.11%. The associated factors that strongly linked with PPD were unplanned pregnancy, premature baby, poor support systems, poor satisfaction with medical care, and family history of mental illness, recurrent verbal abuse, accident and death of loved one. The other factors such as cesarean section, episiotomy, neonate illness, desired new born sex, hypertension, and hyper emesis had also their own significant association. The reasons for this slight difference may be timing at which the study was done three months after delivery, the cultural variation and slight variation in their sample size. The fact that the literature demonstrates a wide variations in what is considered as a significant score on the EPDS, may be the prevalence would have been higher had the significant score been lowered to 11 or 12 as described in the development of the EPDS. Further the prevalence obtained in this study could be an underestimate since some mothers may not have attended post natal care especially if they felt like they were physically well, if they are uneducated or of low socio economic status.

Limitation

Hospital based population may have placed a highly selective group of respondents as seen in the high number of mothers delivered via cesarean section (38.52%) and women’s who have post natal complication. This could have been due to mothers delivered via cesarean section and women are who have post natal complication coming for postnatal care at HFSUH. Most of post natal mothers attained care up to 2 weeks after delivery, so post natal mothers after this period of time didn’t present at study area. There might be mothers who are not available during data collection this decrease the number of cases.

Conclusion

This study found a prevalence of PPD among women delivering at HFSUH, one week after delivery was 13.11% which is a significant high value and compared well with other studies. The associated factors that strongly linked with PPD were unplanned pregnancy, premature baby, poor support systems, poor satisfaction with medical care, and family history of mental illness, recurrent verbal abuse, accident and death of loved one. The other factors such as cesarean section, episiotomy, neonate illness, desired new born sex, hypertension, and hyper emesis had also their own significant association. Residence, educational status, number of birth, age, place of delivery and sex of new born had no significant association with PPD. The findings in this study may form the bases for the need of routine screening of PPD in the post natal care especially those mothers with unplanned pregnancy, premature baby, poor support systems, poor satisfaction with medical care, family history of mental illness, recurrent verbal abuse, accident and death of loved one. This would help prevent PPD at all levels hence a healthy mother.

Recommendations

We would like to recommend

a) Psychiatry staff of Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital should collaborates the services given for psychiatric cases and other gynecologic and obstetrics as well as general medical conditions.

b) The result should be available for the Hiwot Fana staff to alert them on magnitude of PPD.

c) Hiwot Fana staff should be routinely screen for mental illness just like other reproductive health problems for mothers attending hospital during delivery and after delivery.

d) Researchers should have do further researches by different study design, at other health institutions.

e) Haramaya University College of health and medical science, Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital should plan common policy to intervene the identified problem.

f) Finally ministry of health should design policies that interactively provide service on mental illness of mother and their reproductive problems.

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