Lupine Publishers | Histochemical and Histomorphometrical Studies on the Digital Cushion of Heifers and Dairy Cows with Claw Horn Lesions

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Dairy & Veterinary Sciences

Abstract

Background: The ruminant claw horn lesions seriously diminish histological structure and functional efficiency of the digital cushion of the dairy cows.

Objective: To investigate histological and histochemical properties of the digital cushion in the dairy cow with claw horn lesions, such as white line disease, sole damage and hemorrhage.

Results: The results showed that digital cushion loses its normal histological structure in claw horn lesions.

Conclusion: Further biochemical, physiological and feeding studies on the experimentally induced claw horn lesions are necessary to understand the nature of the events playing roles involving animal feeding in the development of the lesions, to develop new animal feeding strategies aiming to protect and maintain the normal structure of the digital cushion.”

Keywords:Protein Degradability; Goats; Intensive Feeding; Nitrogen Balance; Digestibility

Introduction

Lameness is one of the most important problems negatively affecting milk yield and animal welfare in modern dairy farming in high-performance animals. The cows with laminitis produce lower amount of milk [1-5]. Moreover, cyclic reproductive changes of these cows slow down [6] or cease because of anoestrus [7] or cystic ovarian disease [8]. Lameness is a major animal welfare problem because that it is a painful condition and causes to behavioral changes of the affected cow. A lame cow tends to display low mobility [9], to spend decreased daily feeding time and dry matter intake [10] and lying behaviour may be indicative [11]. In the dairy cow, claw horn lesions [CHL] constitute 65% of the total lesions causing to lameness [12,13]. Although possible roles of risk factors, such as claw conformation and trimming, animal welfare, management, feeding and housing have been evaluated in detail by previous researchers [14-17], pathophysiology of CHL is still unclear. Previous researchers [18,19] have suggested that CHL is arisen from traumatic lesions of the supportive tissues of the claw. Around the time of calving, increase of hoofase enzyme, oestrogen and relaxin secretions results in loosening and increased mobility of suspensor apparatus of third phalanx [19]. The bovine digital cushion locating under the third phalanx has a complex structure, which major part is constituted of fat tissue. The cushion comprises three cylindrical segments [axial, medial and abaxial segments] of adipose tissue surrounded by a thick connective tissue trabecules, those arranged in parallel to each other [20,21]. The pads of the bovine digital cushion play crucial roles in reducing the body load transferred to surface of sole via absorbing of substantial forces acting within the claw [22]. The biomechanical function of the digital cushion in distributing and attenuation of the load transferred to the base of flexor process of the distal phalanx have been well appreciated by previous researchers [21,23,24]. The aim of the present study was to determine histological and histochemical properties of the digital cushion in the heifers and primiparous, second and third parturitions, and multiparous dairy cows managed under similar feeding, housing and welfare conditions. The foot was chosen from the animals with CHL, such as white line disease, sole damage and haemorrhage, in order to define the histology and histochemical changes in the digital cushions of the animals.

Material and Methods

Animals

This experiment was approved by the Ethical Committee of Experimental Animal Production and Research Centre (2011/023) of Veterinary Faculty of Selçuk University. In the study, the 120-cadaver foot (totally 240 hooves) of Holstein heifers and cows were used as materials. The animals were culled because of moderate to severe CHL and lameness in one or more hooves. The claws of the animals with similar feeding, housing and welfare conditions were subjected to a detailed clinical examination prior to slaughter. Information on the age, number of parturitions, calving history and stage of lactation were and recorded, in addition to the clinical findings. Among the reasons given for culling were insufficient milk yield, lameness and infertility. The animals were divided into 5 groups, each consisted of 6 animals, as
group I: heifers,
group II: primiparous cows,
group III: cows with second parturition,
group IV: cows with third parturition,
group V: multiparous cows with more than three calving.
The first group animals were 20 months old averagely; other groups were between 2.6-6.2-year-old. After slaughtering, all the foot was cleaned, and lesions, such as discoloration, sole ulcer and hemorrhages were recorded, frozen at -20°C and kept until use for histological procedure.

Dissection of the Hooves and Obtaining Tissue Samples

Each foot was thawed. The soft tissues of the sole and heel of each hoof were separated following the horn had been removed, in order to fully expose the axial, middle and abaxial pads of the digital cushion (Figures 1A-B & Figures 2A-C) [18]. Axial pad of the cushion was totally removed, fixed in 10% phosphate buffered (0.1M pH 7.4) formal-saline and used for histological procedures.

Figure 1: The study area, green - places of mass appearance of painted lady butterflies (Vanessa cardui L.) in 2019.

Figure 2: Separating the corium (2A), dissecting pads of the digital cushion (2B) and totally removing the pads (2C).

Histology and Histomorphometry

The tissue samples were subjected to routine histological tissue processing. Briefly, the tissue samples were washed with tap water overnight, dehydrated in ethylene series, cleared in xylene and immersed in paraffin. The sections taken at 6μm were stained as follows; hematoxylin-eosin for investigating general histology and histological changes [25], safranin-O (SO) for histochemical properties of ground substance, alcian blue at pH 2.5 (AB 2.5) for staining acid mucins and mucosubstance, alcian blue at pH 4.0 (AB 4) for demonstrating carboxylated glucose aminoglycans in the ground substance, trichrome stain for Type I collagen fibres (Coll I) and other histological detail, Verhoef’s elastic fibre (EL) stain for EL fibers [26]. The specimens were investigated under light microscope equipped with digital imaging system and digital images were recorded. The images were analyzed with digital image analysis software (BS200 PRO-2005).

Statistical Analysis

The data obtained from the digital image analyses were analyzed statistically with one-way variance analysis (ANOVA) and Tukey’s pair wise comparison tests by using SPSS software 14.01 (Release 14.01 Licence No: 9869264).

Results

Figure 3: CHL incidence and histometrical results of the groups.

Clinical findings of the animals prior to slaughter and results of postmortem gross examination of the foot Welfare and management of the animals included into the study were far from than satisfactory. The animals were housed on the concrete floor, under poor hygiene conditions, and claw trimming was irregular. The animals were mainly fed with corn silage, alfalfa, vetch and hay. Findings of the postmortem examinations of the foot showed that the animals suffered from CHL, such as sole ulcers, hemorrhage and folding, white line disease and sole erosions in one or more hooves. The highest percentage of the claws with CHL was in the multiparous cows, in the group 5. The groups 2 and 1 the group followed it respectively. The lowest lower CHL frequencies were found in the groups 3 and 4, and the frequencies of these groups were quite similar (P>0.05, Figure 3).

Gross Macroscopic Findings of the Cushion Segments

In most of the claws with CHL, segmental structure of the digital cushion was diminished. The digital cushion tissues of the heifers (Group 1) were pale and softer, whereas in the cows with the increasing the parturition number, the tissues gained yellowish colour and relatively more brittle and fragile. The cushion segments were also smaller in the animals of the groups 4 and 5, aged and multiparous cows (Figures 4A & 4B).

Figure 4: Macroscopic appearance of digital cushion tissues of a heifer from the group 1 (4A) and a cow from the group 5 (4B). The cushion pads of the group 5 animal are smaller and yellowish in colour.

Histological Findings

In general, the digital cushion pads of the animals were mainly formed of a loose connective tissue and unilocular adipose tissue. Adipocytes appeared as large cells with unstained cytoplasm in all of the used staining procedures (Figures 5-9). Fibrous connective tissue septa surrounded the loose connective and adipose tissues. There were striking structural differences in the histology of the digital cushion of heifers and calved cows. Loose connective tissue in the heifers, was replaced with adipose tissue in the primiparous cows, and fibrous connective tissue rich in collagen fibres in the third lactation cows. In the heifers and primiparous cows, adipocytes were seen as groups, whereas in the cows of the groups 3, 4 and 5, the cells were observed as individual cells and the cell groups consisting of small numbers of the adipocytes. Adipose tissue percentages of the groups are given in the Table 1. The highest adipose tissue percentage (21.55%) was in the heifers, group 1, and the value was significantly (P<0.001) higher than those of the other groups (Figure 3). The groups 3 and 4 displayed similar (P>0.05) adipose tissue percentages. The multiparous animals (group 5) had the lowest adipose tissue percentage (Figure 3). Type I collagenous fibres were seen as thick undulating bundles of the fibres darkly stained with aniline blue in trichrome stained sections (Figures 5A- 5E).

Figure 5: Collagen fibre bundles (arrows) and adipocytes (asterisks) are seen in the sections from lateral claw cushion of the right forefoot of the heifer from the group 1 (5A), in the medial claw cushion of the left hindfoot of the animal from the group 2 (5B), in the lateral claw cushion of the left forefoot of the animal from the group 3 (5C), medial claw cushion of the left hindfoot of the animal from the group 4 (5D) and lateral claw cushion of the left hindfoot of the animal from the group 5 (5E) are seen. In contrast to a definite decrease in the adipose tissue rate, the connective tissue gradually increased from the group 1 to the group 5. Crossmon’s trichrome. Magnification bar: 100μm.

Figure 6: Sections of the digital cushion stained with AB pH 2.5 from the medial claw of the left forefoot of the animal from the group 1 (6A), the lateral claw of the right forefoot of the animal from the group 2 (6B), the lateral claw of the right hindfoot of the animal from the group 3 (6C) are seen. Staining intensity of the ground substance (arrows) in different sections is quite similar. Asterisks depict the adipocytes. AB pH 2.5 stain. Magnification bar: 100μm.

Figure 7: Sections of the digital cushion stained with AB pH 4 from the medial claw of the left hindfoot of the animal from the group 1 (7A), the medial claw of the left hindfoot of the animal from the group 4 (7B), the medial claw of the left hindfoot of the animal from the group 4 (7C) and the medial claw of the right hindfoot of the animal from the group 5 (7D) are seen. Slight differences in staining intensities of the ground substance (arrows) in different sections are seen. Asterisks depict the adipocytes. AB pH 4 stain. Magnification bar: 100μm.

Figure 8: Sections of the digital cushion stained with safranin O from the lateral claw of the left hindfoot of the animal from the group 1 (8A), the lateral claw of the left hind foot of the animal from the group 2 (8B) and the lateral claw of the right fore foot of the animal from the group 3 (8C) are seen. Staining intensities of the ground substance (arrows) in different sections are quite similar. Asterisk depicts the adipocytes. SO stain. Magnification bar: 100μm.

The heifers had significantly (P<0.001) higher type I collagen fibre percentage (27.82%) than those of the other groups those had quite similar (P>0.05) percentages (Figure 3). In AB pH 2.5 stained specimens, the AB positivity was mainly located in the ground substance around the connective tissue fibres, embedded in-between the adipocyte groups (Figures 6A-6C). The positivity was also stronger around the individual adipocytes and the groups constituted of small numbers of these cells. Percentage of the AB pH 2.5 stained ground substance was highest (2.08%) in the group 3 and group 2 followed it (1.96%), whereas the groups 1, 4 and 5 had quite similar (P>0.05) and significantly (P<0.01) lower values than those of the groups 2 and 3 (Figure 3). AB pH 4.0 mainly stained the similar ground substance regions with AB pH 2.5, around the connective tissue fibres, located around the adipocyte groups (Figures 7A-7D). Results of the histometrical investigations of the AB pH 4.0 stained specimens showed that the group 1 and group 4 had similar (P>0.05), and significantly higher (P<0.01) positivity percentages than those of the groups 2, 3 and 5 (Figure 3). In SO stained specimens, the positivity was very weak (Figures 8A-8C) in all groups. The positivity percentages of the groups were quite similar and there were no significant differences (P>0.05) between the groups (Figure 3). Elastic fibres were mainly found in-between the connective tissue trabecules surrounding adipocyte groups and tunica adventitia of the blood vessels, and seen as brownishblack, branching coarse and gently undulating fine fibres, in the sections stained with Verhoeff’s elastic fibre stain (Figures 9A- 9E). The results of digital image analyses showed that the group 2 had the highest (1.89%) elastic fibre percentage and the value was significantly (P<0.05) higher than those of the other groups. The groups 1and 3, and 4 and 5 had quite similar elastic fibre percentages (P>0.05, Figure 3).

Figure 9: Sections of the digital cushion stained with Verhoef’s elastic fibre stain from the medial claw of the right hindfoot of the animal from the group 1 (9A), the medial claw of the left hindfoot of the animal from the group 2 (9B), the lateral claw of left forefoot of the animal from the group 3 (9C), medial claw of the left hind foot of the animal from the group 4 (9D) and the lateral claw of the left hind foot of the animal from the group 5 (9E) are seen. Elastic fibres (arrows) are mainly located in connective tissue trabecules surrounding the adipocyte groups (asterisks). Verhoef’s elastic fibre stain. Magnification bar: 100μm

Discussion

In the present study, statistically significant (P<0.01) differences were found between the CHL frequencies of the groups. Particularly, high incidences of CHL in the primiparous cows (45.80%, group 2) and multiparous (56.20%) cows (group 5) were striking. The differences possibly have arisen from higher incidence of CHL in more than one or all foot of the animals in these groups. Previous researchers [27,28] have reported that the histological development and functional maturation of the digital cushion are not completed before the age of three, and also incidence of sole lesions, such as sole ulcerations and white line disease are relatively higher in the first lactation because that the cushion tissues is less elastic and rich in saturated fatty acids. In accordance with the previous researchers [27,28] Incidence of CHL was higher in primiparous cows in the present study. The roles of the additional loads and forces exposed at late pregnancy, and structural and biochemical changes in the regional tissues, in addition to trauma of both corium of sole and the cushion tissues in the pathogenesis and occurrence of CHL have been discussed in detail by previous researchers [17-19,29,30]. Moreover, collaborative effects of improper, inadequate feeding and housing practices are mentioned among significant disposing factors. In coordination of anatomic structures of the hoof [bones, joints, ligaments and bursae] leads to CHL, mainly sole ulcers and white line disease. Thus, hoof problems occur more commonly among the cows kept in cubicles or concrete yards or straw yards than in the cows kept in cowsheds. Previous researchers [18,31,32] have reported that lameness incidence increases in multiparous cows with increase of ageing and calving, especially after third lactation, due to increasing the amount of the loose connective tissue while reducing adipose tissue, decreasing body condition score [BCS], thinning of the cushion segments. In the present study, a gradually decline was found in adipose tissue percentages of the groups, with ageing and increasing parturitions. Loosening of suspensor ligament system of the hoof results in increasing in mobility of bones, and this situation disposes the sole corium and sole horn to traumatic lesions, and consequently plays significant roles in the development of CHL, such as sole ulcers, white line disease [19,33]. Loosening of suspensor system of the hoof also increases the sensitivity of the claw to the CHL depending on increase of loads applied to the foot by increase in mammary gland and foetus weights, especially during first lactation [34]. Clinical findings and histometrical results of the hooves and higher CHL incidence of the groups 2 and 5 are consistent with previous findings [18,31,32]. Moreover, higher CHL incidence of the group 5, in which significant shrinkage of the cushion tissue was observed, supports the hypothesis suggesting the decline in load absorbing capacity of the cushion increases risk of injury of sole corium. Thus, environmental factors, such as long time standing on the concrete floor, unsuitable housing conditions and in proper claw trimming are effective in embodiment of the sole trauma and haemorrhages in addition to increase of coffin bone motility in late pregnancy and parturition. Unsuitable housing and hygiene conditions in the animals of the present study were in accordance with the high CHL incidence of the animals.

The digital cushion, which is a specified connective tissue, is constituted of connective tissue cells and intercellular substance [ICS]. The ICS contains collagenous, elastic and reticular fibres embedded in an amorphous ground substance. The amount of the amorphous ground substance in young animals is higher than fibrous elements. With ageing, the amount and rate of fibrous elements increase and the rate reverses in older animals. The digital cushion, a member of supporting system of the ruminant hoof locating in subcutis, is a complex structure, composed of white and yellow adipose tissues. There are significant differences in histological structure and organization of the digital cushion among the ungulate animal species. The digital cushion of the ruminant hoof is closely resembled with the cushion of the elephant’s cushion [18]. Equine digital cushion has relatively different structural features. In the horse, the cushion is composed of small number of elastic fibres and closely packaged interlacing collagenous fibres dispersed in acidic mucous matrix, rich in hyaluronic acid. Large spaces between the cells and fibres occupied with mixoid tissue and islets of fibro cartilage tissue [35,36]. Collagen fibres, especially type I fibres are the dominant fibre type of the connective tissues. Although the collagenous fibres have limited elasticity, their tensile strength is enough to meet the high tensile forces of the foot. In the present study, axial pad of the digital cushion constituted of white, unilocular adipose tissue lobuli surrounded by connective tissue trabecules. Fibro cartilage was not observed in the specimens. In some of the groups, trabecules surrounding adipose tissue lobuli constituted of loose connective tissue and contained less amount of type I collagen fibres, the others were rich in the collagenous fibres. Group 1 contained significantly (p<0.001) higher collagen (27.82%) when compared with the other groups. A gradual decline of type I collagenous fibre percentage was typical in the remaining, older and multiparous groups (groups 3, 4 and 5). Nevertheless, they contained quite similar (P>0.05) type I collagen fibre rates. Gradual reduction of type I collagenous fibre rate with the increase of age and calving might arisen from the structural and functional changes occurred in aged animals and during the late pregnancy and post parturition. It might be predicted that shock absorbing capacity of the digital cushion considerably reduced with declining of collagen fibre rate. In accordance with this prediction, the highest (56.20%) CHL incidence was found in the group 5, which had relatively low rate of type I collagen fibres. Moreover, in accordance with the prediction above, previous researchers [19,33,37], also suggested that loosening of the suspensor system of the hoof during pregnancy and post parturition increases sensitivity of sole corium located between coffin bone and sole to trauma, and consequently playing significant roles in the pathogenesis of the CHL, such as sole ulcers and white line disease.

Although the information on the types and distribution of adipocytes in ruminant digital cushion is limited, the heifer cushion contains lesser amount of the fat cells. The digital cushion of the heifers is a whitish and gelatinous in nature containing high amounts of ground substance and lipid content gradually increases through 2-3 parturitions, and gradually decrease starting from 3 years of age [18,21,32]. Because that white fat tissue is an energy source, many metabolic and hormonal mechanisms, such as pancreatic hormones and glucocorticoids are efficient on this fat tissue. Thus, feeding and other metabolic factors are likely to efficient on both amount and composition of fat of the digital cushion. Moreover, it is well known that the fatty acid composition and amounts of the cow’s digital cushion are seriously affected by metabolic disorders, mainly by ketosis. Similarly, previous researchers [38] emphasized that the topic needs detailed evidences. In the presented study, the digital cushion of the dairy cattle comprised of islets of large unilocular adipocytes. In the digital cushion with low levels of fat tissue, individual adipocytes were frequently seen. The animals in the group 1 contained significantly (P<0.001) higher adipocyte rates (%21.55) and the group 2 it, with a significant decline. However, the group 2 contained significantly (P<0.05) higher fat tissue percentage than those of the groups 3, 4 and 5. Rastani [39] suggested that lipids are mobilized from fat tissues in order to be used in milk synthesis. Lipids in white fat depots in the digital cushion are also consumed. Considering the data obtained in this study, it is possible to assume that white adipose tissue in the ruminant digital cushion also can be used as an energy source in ketosis, which is a condition resulting in negative energy balance [NEB], and thus CHL increase post parturition period. It is well known that fat and elastic fibres of the digital cushion play significant roles in shock absorbing mechanism of the cushion via expanding sideways until their viscoelasticity is limited by stretched fibrous connective tissue septa rich in collagen fibres. Elastic fibres support expansion by flattening their undulations and support reversing to the situation before when the applied force is expired. Significant decreases in both elastic fibre and adipose tissue rates result in loss of elasticity of the digital cushion.

There is limited information on the histochemical properties of ground substance of the cow’s digital cushion, and also histometrical results evaluation of these parameters have not been documented previously. In the present study, the results of the AB pH 2.5, AB pH 4.0 and SO stains showed that ground substance of the cow’s digital cushion was rich in hyaluronic acid (hyaluronan) and other proteoglycans, although there were some differences between the groups. Because that hyaluronic acid is a macromolecule increasing the viscosity of the tissue fluid, it consequently augments resilience of the tissue by binding water molecules. Other proteoglycans stained with SO might support the digital cushion in resisting to pressure, since the proteoglycans also show high water binding affinity and tend to gelation [40]. Although the results of the present study indicated that the ground substance of cow’s digital cushion was rich in hyaluronic acid, the hoof material was obtained from the animals with varying degree of CHL lesions. The authors strongly stress that a detailed comparison should be carried out between the findings of healthy and CHL animals. The elastic fibres, which relatively thinner when compared to the collagen fibres, are able to compensate the forces applied between elasticity limits. Tissues gain elasticity and stress bearing features by their elastic fibre content. Elastic fibres are found in hoof soft tissues as in other elastic tissues. Information on distribution and localization of these fibres in the ruminant hoof soft tissues is insufficient. In a previous histological study [38], elastic fibres were found between the collagen fibre bundles in the digital cushion of African elephant. In this study, elastic fibres were more peculiarly observed in-between the collagenous fibre bundles and in blood vessel walls. Morphometrical analyses evidenced that the group 2 displayed significantly (P<0.05) higher elastic fibre percentage (1.89%) than the other groups. Although there was a declining tendency with increase of the parturition number, the other groups had relatively similar elastic fibre ratios. Besides, striking decline of the elastic fibre percentage was determined in the groups 4 and 5 in concomitant with higher CHL lesion incidence. Although further studies are needed, the results of the present study imply that elastic fibre content of the cow digital cushion is quite limited and might play only small role in the functions of the digital cushion and in the development CHL lesions.

Conclusion

Based on the results, it was concluded that CHL seriously affected both histology and functional efficiency of the digital cushion of dairy cows. Results of the present study, which show strong evidence between histological, histochemical and histometrical findings and CHL lesions are noteworthy. However, the results should be compared with those of the healthy animals in further experiments those are involving experimental models. Further studies necessary to understand the nature of the events playing roles involving animal feeding in the development of the lesions, to develop new animal feeding strategies aiming to protect and maintain the normal structure of the digital cushion, in order to maintain and augment its supportive and protective roles, to reduce incidence of laminitis.

Grant Support

This work was supported by a grant from The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey with project no: TOVAG 112O332.

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Lupine Publishers | Effect of Diet on Evolutionary Obstetrics

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Gynaecology and Women's Healthcare

Opinion

Diet and health are both related directly to the reproductive functions of a female in that nutrient intake effects exactly what hormones are produced and at what amounts. According literature women of Western societies produce more progesterone and estradiol from their ovaries leading to high rates of breast cancer in the West [1]. Another facet to the Western diet is foods that are rich in sugar thus contributing to the blood sugar level and ultimately affecting resistance to insulin. This resistance to insulin, which is called diabetes, may lead to many problems of the reproductive function of women. Obesity, insulin resistance, and hyperinsulinemia are all common of women in the West and lead to oligomenorrhea, amenorrhea, and chronic anovulation [2]. Regions pay big role into nutrition in the sense that different areas have abundance of different types of foods, a bulk of North America simply gets absorbed into the “western” diet, meaning increased intake of unhealthy food due to increased availability of fast food. Since these female populations are adopting nutritious lifestyles leading to obesity, insulin resistance, and hyperinsulinemia, these newly developing populations have women who are unable to reproduce as well, thus making this “developing society” not “develop.” The current research is supported with case studies demonstrating insulin levels, SHBG, and testosterone levels of women who are of south Asian descent living in affluent societies such as the United Kingdom [3]. The evidence provided portrayed that though there were two type of women living in the same society, women from south Asia that were adopting the new Western lifestyles were more susceptible to having high levels of insulin and insulin resistance, thus proving that the societies that are westernizing is leading to reproductive failure of the women. What this portrays is that high levels of obesity, insulin resistance, and insulin itself leads populations in transition to have reduced fecundity in women and based on the examples provided, it is a logical conclusion [4].

Another, “purposeful” way of preventing pregnancy is to take oral contraceptives or using contraceptives altogether before having sexual intercourse. There are many different types of ways a woman who is sexually active can prevent pregnancy. The most recent type of contraception is the menstrual-suppressing oral contraceptives which lead to virtually no menstrual cycle or a very consistent menstrual cycle like one every 3 months [5]. The basis of the menstrual cycle is avoided because of the menstrualsuppressing oral contraceptives. The main reason this happens is to procure sexual development and gain levels in estrogen and progesterone. There are two general standpoints on whether these contraceptives should be taken: the fact that the menstrual cycle is physiologically tolling, or menstruation is energetically less costly than maintain the endometrium between ovulations [6]. There are many different hypotheses present, after these standpoints are mentioned, which talk about what menstruation can do and why it is there. These hypotheses are that menstruation was an evolutionary byproduct, it aids in pathogen removal, it weeds out defective embryos, and it advertises fertility. How women feel about menstruation also would aid in decisions on whether to use contraception or not. According to the surveys, women are inadvertently split close to even in that some women feel they need the period and some feel that they should take oral contraceptives to ease the pain and reduce bleeding that occurs [7]. There are various pros and cons when considering oral contraceptives, so it is completely a woman’s choice on to take one or not. The menstrual cycle is neither beneficial nor deleterious when compared with women taking contraception, thus leaving the argument open ended on whether taking these contraceptives are viable. Poor diet garners an overall unwanted experience while contraception is used for the sole purpose of deterring pregnancy; these are two of the few ways that women are preventing pregnancies [8].

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Lupine Publishers| Cyber Hybrid Warfare: Asymmetric Threat

 Lupine Publishers| Journal of Material Science

Abstract

Cyber hybrid warfare has been known since antiquity; it is not a new terminology nor a new practice. It can have an effect even more than a regular conventional war. The implementation of the cyber hybrid war aims to misinform, guide and manipulate citizens, disorganize the target state, create panic, overthrow governments, manipulate sensitive situations, intimidate groups, individuals and even shortened groups of the population, and finally to form an opinion according to the enemy’s beliefs. Creating online events designed to stimulate citizens to align with the strategy of governments or the strategy of the enemy government is a form of cyber hybrid warfare. The cyber hybrid warfare falls under the category of asymmetric threats as it is not possible to determine how, and the duration of the cyber invasion. The success or not of a cyber hybrid war depends on the organization, the electronic equipment, and the groups of actions they decide according to the means at their disposal to create the necessary digital entities. Finally, the cyber hybrid warfare is often used to show online military equipment aimed at downplaying its moral opponent.

Keywords: Hybrid war, Cyber war, Online threat, Cyber warfare, Warfare

Introduction

The cyber hybrid warfare also includes DeepFake, a practice mentioned in Christos Beretas previous research. The cyber hybrid war aims to disrupt and hurt the adversarial state in an organized and targeted manner, mainly regarding the organizational structure of the target state and its functioning. Digital media are used to intimidate citizens, target specific groups of people, disseminate false news between political and military leadership in order to spread hatred and resentment on both sides, to divide the people, and finally the fall of the government, followed by the anger and indignation of the people. The cyber hybrid warfare is not only and exclusively applied during a period of natural war, it is a kind of war that can be waged for years and of course in times of peace. It is difficult for citizens in a cyber hybrid war to understand the truth and lies. A well-organized cyber hybrid war is difficult for people to recognize as the facts presented are so convincing that it is impossible to recognize them as false. The ways to avoid and protect against such a war are numerous and require knowledge, experience, alertness, high morale, courage and professionalism to deal with such a cyber threat from its birth. Sovereign states around the world are using the cyber hybrid warfare to blackmail, trap, mislead, both foreign governments and citizens, achieving remote results without the use of physical violence and natural disasters. The cyber hybrid war has come to stay, and it is an emerging form of war - the pressure of the strong against the weak or better of the organized states against the disorganized. As mentioned above, a great DeepFake video is capable of stirring up enormous panic and hatred in a society. It is an asymmetric threat that is increasing day by day.

Characteristics

The cyber hybrid war is an asymmetric threat that is defined when an entity uses electronic means to disturb the peace or spread panic in the target state and launch hostilities or uproot social groups residing in it. A fake video, for example, that will be sent to targeted social groups is capable of sparking riots in the crowd with demonstrations and violence. By reading this one can easily understand the reader that the cyber hybrid war is the result of an entity preceding its onset. This entity is the digital asymmetric threat which if not handled properly then evolves into a cyber hybrid war. The cyber hybrid war is not tantamount to an isolated practice, that is, it is not a common attack on the adversarial state; rather, it consists of organized methods that are often impossible to identify, such an attack may include social media, online press, videos and hostilities from different events, etc. The difference between a cyber hybrid war and conventional warfare is that except there are no killings and conflicts, there is a constant lowlevel influx of information affecting the target state. That is, it does not follow the logic that an event has occurred, a number of people have risen and then the digital invasion process has ended, on the contrary, the digital presence is continuous and stable at the same level as possible.

Advanced stages of a cyber hybrid war include practices such as misinformation aimed at the financial loss of the target state, intra-country turmoil from pro-country groups that launched the cyber hybrid war to compel its citizens to withdraw. for the purpose of financial loss or even the overthrow of the government. In a cyber hybrid war, the invaders’ practical ways of attacking are not one-sided but two-sided, which means that in one field they can decrease and increase in another, for example a false bent can be seen in social media news and on the contrary the volume of fake videos is growing too. A cyber hybrid war is often won when combine electronic and physical attacks in the target state, which means that in the target state it requires the penetration of disturbing elements in order to revolt and destroy the target state’s infrastructure and economy. This includes increasing crime, which will then be used in the media and social media by the adversary state as a means of corrupting the target country with the ultimate aim of reducing its reputation, spreading fear to other countries. aimed at restricting travelers, other countries’ security reviews, further financial burden, withering and global isolation.

The success or not of a cyber hybrid war in addition to the proper organization, hardware, and staff, requires and sufficient funding for the whole venture, funding is a key success factor, with insufficient funding the result will be the opposite, as it will unprofessionalism has emerged, and it is easy for social groups to understand that this is fake news, which is equivalent to project failure and redesign. Funding can come exclusively from the state that organizes the cyber hybrid threat, it can come from friendly countries in it, as well as from organizations that are scattered around the world, usually when a cyber hybrid war is funded by organizations around the world, the communication takes place through social media or smart phone applications that offer anonymous messaging services. At this point it should be noted that there is no formal single practice or specificity in the form of steps that need to be taken to be considered a threat as a cyber hybrid threat, so there is no legal framework defining the steps that characterize that this is a threat to the target state to take legal actions, the legal framework is incomplete and that is something that countries that are waging such wars are very aware of and they are washed.

As technology evolves, asymmetric threats increase as states with sufficient funding and equipment are able to wage such wars on a large scale, which is why the cyber hybrid wars will intensify. That is why governments and security agencies around the world are trying to organize and shield themselves against the cyber hybrid war, now knowing that its impact is greater than even conventional warfare. Preparing, organizing, and preventing such attacks are the basic prerequisites for dealing with the threat. This entails writing and implementing a cyber security policy that outlines the conditions, steps to be taken, education, definitions, and how to handle such incidents. The security policy should be updated annually and adapted to the needs and the level of risk that exists per period. It must adequately specify how government agencies must act in a period of digital asymmetric threat. Allied countries need to formulate a common cyber policy so that dealing with a digital asymmetric threat is unified. It is of no use to allies and friendly countries not to implement a common strategy against digital asymmetric threats. Friendly organized countries can easily trap the enemy and destroy the plans [1-3].

Conclusion

The cyber hybrid war is made up of several entities that, depending on the smooth functioning of all entities, are judged to be successful or unsuccessful. It is an asymmetric threat, no one can know the length or the size of the area it will take place. It is a kind of war that with the development of technology will see significant development. An important factor in success is financial support and therefore the amount of money each state is willing to spend to design and implement a credit cyber hybrid war. A well-organized and implementable cyber hybrid warfare can cause severe damage to a conventional one. It is not necessary for a cyber hybrid war to be designed exclusively by wealthy and developed countries, such a war can be created by any state that has the knowledge, money, and organization to mount an asymmetric threat. In the cyber hybrid war, the chances of convicting states for war crimes are minimized, as in the cyber hybrid war there is no clear legal framework defining the methods of intruders. Identifying a digital threat is difficult due to the complexity of its actions; identifying and neutralizing a cyber hybrid threat requires knowledge and experience of such threats. Some countries in the world have developed methods and teams to detect and manage such threats, but the measures they take to protect them are found to be incomplete and not fully effective and the reason is the rapid development of technology that new methods and techniques are constantly being discovered. Finally, as has been said above, the best defense is the organization of friendly states to provide a single aid and formulate a unified security policy that will lead to massive isolation of cyber hybrid threats. Unified repression by friendly countries against such attacks is the best organized defense against hybrid threats.

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Lupine Publishers| Person’s Foresight about Cause and Tackling of Catastrophe of Dengue Fever

 Lupine Publishers| Journal of Drug Designing & Intellectual Properties

Abstract

Dengue fever is a mosquito born disease. Biting of female mosquito transfer virus in to host through its tentacles and then it multiply, first when host defense mechanism strong it fights with phages after time they become resistant multiply and cause infection that cause dengue fever. Biology students gave their contribution in evaluation of understanding and their views relate to dengue fever. In Pakistan, upper Punjab suffered catastrophe of dengue fever. It was concluded that most subjects claimed mosquito infection was viral, also people claimed it never treated with surgery. Some people understood it can be treated by specific type of medicine, it also not metabolic disease.

Keywords: Phages; Resistant; Catastrophe

Introduction

Dengue fever is commonly cause by the dengue virus that cause infection. This virus spread in the tropical or sub-tropical areas. It is also called mosquito borne illness. Mosquitoes spread diseases without affective themselves. Dengue Virus is a mosquito borne positive single stranded RNA virus. Sudden high fever, severe headaches, eyes pain, fatigue, nausea skin rashes are the symptoms of dengue fever. Bleeding gums, blood vomiting, rapid breathing are the warning signs that can cause severe dengue fever. When mosquito bites symptoms start to show after five to seven days. Sometimes symptoms show after two weeks from biting. Liver, heart, lungs can damage by the dengue fever [1-2]. Objective of the present study was, person’s foresight about cause and tackling of catastrophe of dengue fever.

Materials and Methods

In recent study the subject were hundred students, from the Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan, Pakistan

Project Designing

The topic, for we got views of subjects was person’s foresight about cause and tackling of catastrophe of dengue fever. A questionnaire helped about the visions of the subjects, about dengue fever, the subjects were biology students. In this way subjects visualized their information and knowledge about dengue fever.

Statistical Analysis

MS excel was used to perform the statistical analysis (Table 1-4).

Table 1: Questionnaire to evaluate awareness about etiology of dengue fever.

Table 2: Questionnaire to evaluate views about prevalence of dengue fever.

Table 3: Questionnaire to evaluate views about transmission of dengue fever.

Table 4: Questionnaire to evaluate views about Hope for dengue fever.

Results

Figure 1: Is dengue infection viral or not?

Figure 2:Is dengue infection bacterial or not?

Is dengue infection viral or not? The results are given in (Figure 1). 69% female said it is viral, 25% males said viral, remained claimed no it was not viral. Is dengue infection bacterial or not? The results in (Figure 2). 42% and 45% males and females respectively claimed, no it was not bacterial. Is it being fungal disease? The results in (Figure 3). 42% and 58% males and females understood not fungal infection it was Is Dengue fever, genetic disease? 31% and 69% disease males and females said it is not genetic infection. Results explained in (Figure 4). Is dengue infection metabolic? Results explained in (Figure 5). It observed that 39% and 35% females and males claimed not metabolic infection. Person’s views about prevalence and tackling from catastrophe of dengue fever are given in (Table 5). 100% males and females both claimed that they never effected by the disaster of dengue fever. 22% males subject said that any family member never effected. 49% males said neighbor never effected by such type of infection. 1% female claimed, her fellow suffered from it. 45% males said such type of infection spread from transmission of lymph. 63% males said it is no need of any treatment. Both100% men and women subjects claimed that it never be remedy by surgery

Figure 3:Is it is fungal disease? or not.

Figure 4: Is dengue fever genetic disease?

Figure 5:Is dengue infection metabolic?

Table 5:Prevalence and management of dengue fever.

Discussion

Questionnaire based study had an important [3-6]. Jahan Asia Public Family Medicine published the paper of Jamal et. al., who discussed the dengue fever in Pakistan, it leads to death in sever condition. International journal of mosquito research published another paper in which it is reported that 71649 people suffered from this disease with 757 deaths. Multiple dengue virus serotypes also affected the persons in India and Srilanka. Uncovered and pure water first habitat of dengue fever, cover self-first also your family it is the foremost tackling of about dengue virus that cause dengue fever.

Conclusion

It was concluded that most subjects claimed mosquito infection was viral, also people claimed it never treated with surgery. Some people understood it can be treated by specific type of medicine, it also not metabolic disease.

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Lupine Publishers| Use of Hemp Fiber in Textiles

 Lupine Publishers| Journal of Textile and Fashion Designing

Opinion

The number of companies manufacturing and selling textiles based on hemp fibers are gradually increasing worldwide. Hemp fabric or hemp textiles are made from cannabis sativa fiber or industrial hemp. Being a natural, renewable and biodegradable material, hemp enjoys obvious advantages over synthetic textile materials like acrylic, polyester, nylon and spandex used for making fabrics.

Hemp creates one of the most eco-friendly fabrics in the world. Hemp requires no pesticides or herbicides, controls erosion of the topsoil, and produces oxygen. It is a renewable resource that can be cultivated in as little as 100 days and is the world’s most versatile fiber. In comparison, cotton is more water-intensive and takes longer to reach harvest age and produces less fibers per acre. Hemps’ tensile strength is eight times that of cotton fiber which accounts for its historical use in sails and rope for the British and American Navies. It is an exceptionally durable fabric - longer lasting than cotton - and does not lose shape easily.

Fabrics made from hemp are hypo-allergenic and non-irritating to the skin. Hemp has the look and feel of classic linen. Hemp materials also soften with age and with each washing. Like linen and cotton, hemp is a cool choice for summer. It breathes well and is recommended for warm, humid climates as the fabric resists mildew and absorbs moisture. It is also UV resistant.

However, there are some associated disadvantages as well. For instance, hemp wrinkles easily and can be somewhat scratchy (depending upon the blend), so it is often blended with other fabrics like linen, cotton and silk to give it a softer feel. Hemp is also not colorfast. Given that mainstream brands like Adidas, Quiksilver, Patagonia and others have added products made of hemp to their repertoire has helped popularize hemp as a garment fiber. Today, there are many brands like Woolrich, Cannabeings Designs, Hemp Authority and others that specialize in hemp clothing and accessories that are available through mainstream commercial channels like Amazon and others.

Some examples of commercial products available are hemp blended yarn with cotton/organic cotton by Hemp Active, an Austrian company. A few companies in Europe are selling hemp/ polyester 60/40 blends and hemp/wool/polyester 40/40/20 blends. Hemp Textiles, Canada, supplies blend of hemp/wool 50/50. A blend of the natural strength of hemp, the soft elasticity of cotton or the smooth texture of silk creates a whole new spectrum of textiles for fashion design.

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Lupine Publishers | Women in Advertisements: Women or Objectified Thin Bodies?

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences

Abstract

Since the beginning of Humanity history, women are one of the main focuses of attention. Women have to deal with beauty standards which are dynamic and are changing over time. Thus the actual beauty standard is very thin: to be beautiful, women have to be very thin. But women bodies in ads are retouched and unrealistic. Hence, when women with real bodies are confronted to thin-ideal bodies, they are, in fact, confronted to an unattainable standard of women beauty. By now, many findings suggest that repeated exposure to such unrealistic standards have negative and significative implications on women. Some of these effects could certainly be avoided if individuals, and especially women, were better informed about the unrealistic and harmful nature of this norm and its consequences.

Keywords: Objectivation; Thin Ideal; Advertisements; Women

Introduction

Since the beginning of Humanity history, women are one of the main focuses of attention. They have a lot of duties; have to adopt specific behaviors and to be good mothers and good wives. Specifically, women’s bodies are, since several decades, in the spotlight too. Women have to deal with beauty standards which are dynamic and are changing over time. With the apparition of mass media, the social pressure doesn’t only come from pairs and parents but also from media [1]. By now, mass media is considered as the most powerful and persuasive source of influence [2-4] as they are constantly surrounded by advertisements even when we do not necessarily pay much attention to Most ads (whatever the promoted product) use women bodies which depict the ideal norm of feminine beauty. Women in ads are presented as perfect, thin, beautiful, with smooth skin, very white teeth and unrealistic measurements [5]. Since the 1980s to the 1990s, we observe a significant decrease in the weight of female models [6] as models are now mostly underweight. Thus the actual beauty standard is very thin: to be beautiful, women have to be very thin. But women bodies in ads are retouched and unrealistic. Hence, when women with real bodies are confronted to thin ideal bodies, they are, in fact, confronted to an unattainable standard of women beauty. By now, many findings suggest that repeated exposure to such unrealistic standards have negative and significative implications on women. By setting what is appreciable or desirable in a woman [7], standards provide women with indicators to assess their own bodies. Social comparison with the weight standard contributes to the construction of women’s image of their own bodies [8] and since the standard is excessively thin , many women overestimate their weight, and even perceive themselves as overweight when they are objectively not [9]. Moreover, a perception of excess weight lead women to suffer from “normative discontent” [8] and a body dissatisfaction [10,11] which can affect women’s quality of life by generating low self-esteem [12], anxiety and even depression [13] and a greater accessibility of suicidal thoughts [14]. It also generates negative behavioral consequences: women who are dissatisfied with their bodies tend to use fast, harmful and unhealthy weight loss eating and physical practices [15], and weight overestimation predicts the use of behaviors that lead individuals to gain weight [16-19].

Conclusion

In addition, the thinness standard makes overweight synonymous with normative deviance. People who are overweight are the target of stereotypes: they are suspected of eating in secret, refusing to control their diet, losing control of themselves when eating, and over-consuming [20-22]. Overweight women are specifically considered as not being feminine and sensual [23]. Moreover, overweight individuals experience significant stigmatization [23-25] which obviously affects their quality of life and food behaviors. It also may also lead women who perceive themselves as overweight to make poor food choices and to consume more fatty and sweet foods through stereotype threat [25,26]. Some of these effects could certainly be avoided if individuals, and especially women, were better informed about the unrealistic and harmful nature of this norm and its consequences. Unfortunately, only a few are. We believe that public policies should address this limit and provide women the key elements to limit the negative consequences of exposure to the slimming standard, particularly in advertising.

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Lupine Publishers | Palauamine and Olympiadane Nano Molecules Incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by Immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as Molecular Enzymes and Drug Targets for Human Cancer Cells, Tissues and Tumors Treatment under Synchrotron and Synchrocyclotron Radiations

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Organic & Inorganic Chemical Sciences

Abbrevations: NPM: Nano Polymeric Matrix; NPME: Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode; CEMs: Chemical Modified Electrodes; MWCNTs: Multi–Walled Carbon Nanotubes; CPE: Carbon Paste Electrode

Editorial

In the current editorial, we study Palau’amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules (Figures 1 & 2) incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as molecular enzymes and drug targets for human cancer cells, tissues and tumors treatment under synchrotron and synchrocyclotron radiations. In this regard, the development of Chemical Modified Electrodes (CEMs) is at present an area of great interest. CEMs can be divided broadly into two main categories; namely, surface modified and bulk modified electrodes. Methods of surface modification include adsorption, covalent bonding, attachment of polymer Nano films, etc. Polymer Nano film coated electrodes can be differentiated from other modification methods such as adsorption and covalent bonding in that they usually involve multilayer as opposed to monolayer frequently encountered for the latter methods. The thicker Nano films imply more active sites which lead to larger analytical signals. This advantage coupled with other, their versatility and wide applicability, makes polymer Nano film modified electrodes particularly suitable for analytical applications [1–27].

Figure 1: Molecular structure of Palau’amine Nano molecules.

Figure 2: Molecular structure of Olympiadane Nano molecules.

Electrochemical polymerization offers the advantage of reproducible deposition in terms of Nano film thickness and loading, making the immobilization procedure of a metal–based electro catalyst very simple and reliable for Palau’ amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules–encapsulating Carbon nanotubes incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as molecular enzymes and drug targets for human cancer cells, tissues and tumors treatment under synchrotron and synchrocyclotron radiations. Also, it must be notice that the nature of working electrode substrate in electro preparation of polymeric Nano film is very important, because properties of polymeric Nano films depend on the working electrode anti–cancer Nano materials. The ease and fast preparation and of obtaining a new reproducible surface, the low residual current, porous surface and low cost of Multi–Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs) paste are some advantages of Carbon Paste Electrode (CPE) over all other solid electrodes [28–92].

On the other hand, it has been shown that, macrocyclic complexes of Palau’amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules– encapsulating Carbon nanotubes are interest as modifying agents because in basic media Palau’amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules–encapsulating Carbon nanotubes redox centers show high catalytic activity towards the oxidation of small organic anti-cancer Nano compounds. The high–valence species of Palau’amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules–encapsulating Carbon nanotubes seem to act as strong oxidizing agents for low-electroactivity organic substrates. 1,2–Dioxetane (1,2– Dioxacyclobutane), 1,3–Dioxetane (1,3– Dioxacyclobutane), DMDM Hydantoin and Sulphobe as the anti–cancer organic intermediate products of methanol oxidation as well as formic acid, is important to investigate its electrochemical oxidation behavior in Palau’ amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules-encapsulating Carbon nanotubes incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as molecular enzymes and drug targets for human cancer cells, tissues and tumors treatment under synchrotron and synchrocyclotron radiations [93–110].

In this editorial, we decided to combine the above mentioned advantageous features for the aim of Palau’ amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules–encapsulating Carbon nanotubes incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as molecular enzymes and drug targets for human cancer cells, tissues and tumors treatment under synchrotron and synchrocyclotron radiations. Furthermore, in this editorial, we prepared poly Nano films by electropolymerization at the surface of Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs) paste electrode. Then, Palau’amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules–encapsulating Carbon nanotubes were incorporated into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) in a solution. The modifier layer of Palau’amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules–encapsulating Carbon nanotubes at the electrode surface acts as a Nano catalyst for the treatment of human cancer cells, tissues and tumors under synchrotron and synchrocyclotron radiations. Suitability of this Palau’amine and Olympiadane Nano molecules–encapsulating Carbon nanotubes–modified polymeric Multi–Walled Carbon Nano tubes (MWCNTs) paste electrode toward the electrocatalytic treatment of human cancer cells, tissues and tumors under synchrotron and synchrocyclotron radiations in alkaline medium at ambient temperature was investigated [111– 153].

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Lupine Publishers| Determinants of Depression Among Married Women Living in Quetta City, Pakistan

 Lupine Publishers| Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Biosciences

Abstract

Intense and tenacious feeling of despondency or loss of interest in things that once were enjoyable such condition is termed as Depression which is characterized as a mental illness and contributes a considerable fraction of the inclusive burden of diseases. Determinants of depression among married women includes gender discernment, over burden of work, domestic violence, psychological distress, sexual abuse, women’s poor mental and physical health etc. Identification of potential determinants of depression will possibly aid in devising preemptive strategies in order to reduce its pervasiveness among married women.

Keywords: Depression; Psychological distress; Gender discernment; Cultural bindings; Quetta

Introduction

Depression has been documented as a major mental disorder globally evinced by its fourth position among other diseases [1]. It has been reported that approximately 350 million individuals suffer from it that subsidizes to a high rate of suicide [2]. In Pakistan depression is reported to hold first place among all psychological ailments affecting approximately 29% to 66% women and 10% to 33% of men [3,4]. Depression is intensifying as a major health problem affecting married women with high magnitude than men [5]. Determinants of depression among married women includes gender discernment, over burden of work, domestic violence, psychological distress, sexual abuse, women’s poor mental and physical health etc [6,7]. Besides unforceful life events such as loss of a loved one, subservience, mortification can envisage depression [8]. In addition to that numerous health related issues of married women such as hormonal imbalances, menstrual cycle irregularity, miscarriage, abortion, pregnancy, menopause etc also contributes to high rate of depression [9,10].

A number of married women faces stresses due to over burden of responsibilities both at work and home [11]. Numerous women are also particularly susceptible to postpartum depression after the birth of a baby due to the added responsibility of a new life [12,13]. Married women are reported to be more depressed usually because of her multiple roles as a mother, as a wife, as a daughter-in-law etc and its associated responsibilities [14]. Marital dissatisfaction, family size, occupation, domestic violence, education, cultural setups etc were also reported to be the contributing factors causing depression among married women [15,16]. Quetta city is known for its low countenance, strong customary bindings, cultural reticence, lack of assets and social difficulties [17,18]. Therefore the main purpose of this designed study was to identify the determinants of depression among married women residing in Quetta city and to determine its incidence rate. The reason for choosing married women lies in the fact that married women are more inclined to be depressed that men because they have multiple responsibilities and they are the one who usually faces the ups and downs of life. Consequently, it is important to report this problem to develop mental health sustenance services for women suffering from depression particularly for under developed regional areas.

Materials and Methods

Current study was conducted with the help of a self-developed questionnaire among married women living in different areas of Quetta city, located in the province of Balochistan. The sample size was kept 100.Incidence of depression was measured using 21- item Beck Depression Inventory–II (BDI-II) [19]. The score below 17 indicated non-depressed individuals however score equal to or greater than 17 indicated depressed individuals. Information regarding education, occupation (working status), number of children (family size), husband’s income and marital status was also obtained for the studied respondents.

Results and Discussion

Data in Table 1 shows that a high percentage of married women is facing marital dissatisfaction (69%) which may be due to their husband’s unsatisfactory low earnings as indicated in the mentioned table that 59% of married women were dissatisfied with their husbands’ income causing financial problems. Thus, creating difficulties for such women to support large family. As we all are aware of the concept of combine family system in Pakistan, majority of the households in Quetta has combine family setup which consisted of a large number of dependent individuals relying on a sole independent earning member for their needs [20,21]. Such independent individual is referred as the head of the family and is usually a male. He is responsible for providing the basic necessities of life to his family [22].

Table 1: Demographic and social factors among married females.

And since majority of Pakistani households preferred to have large family size based on their cultural influence and upbringing setups [23]. In such circumstances a low income of the head of the family is not sufficient to support a family of many individuals creating domestic issues which eventually a married woman has to face in the end, leading to mental stress and depression [24,25]. As income is one of the contributing factors of depression, it is well known that women who belongs to low socio-economic group are at elevated risk for depression [26]. Table 1 also indicates that high incidence of depression is mainly due to low literacy rate of married women, only a small percentage of women were literate i.e.36% and a large fraction were reported to be illiterate. According to a study it was reported that educated women were found to be less depressed than low educated or illiterate women because an educated woman is more intellectual and skillful in performing day to day domestic tasks and managing a big household with less mental pressure [27,28]. An educated woman is more fortified with self-sufficiency, decision making capability and confidence [29].

Besides she can also share the financial burden of her husband by doing a job of some kind [30]. Unfortunately working of a female after marriage is not much favored in Pakistani system especially in under developed areas like Quetta due to the narrow mindedness of her male partner or reluctant mentality of her in-laws. Considering the above-mentioned determinants of depression, prevalence rate of this mental disorder was reported to be high i.e.67% among married women as indicted in Table 2 and Graph 1. However, there were several limitations in our study such as information regarding family history of depression, loss of loved ones, current health illness, documentation of domestic violence, sexual abuse, clinical evaluation of women physical/mental health before/after child birth etc which needs to be unveiled in future studies. This study is an endeavor to address the matter of increasing rate of depression among married Pakistani women living in under developed areas to make commendations on how to improve their mental health.

Table 2: Incidence of depression among married women of Quetta city.

Grpah 1: Incidence of depression among married women of Quetta city.

Conclusion

Current study revealed that the overall rate of depression was reported to be high i.e. 67% among married women which is alarming and required clinical diagnosis of depression and its associated treatment. The overall results indicated that depression is high among married women who belongs to a low-income household with large family size. Besides high illiteracy rate is also responsible for depression among married women.

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Lupine Publishers| Structural Insulated Panels: State-of-the-Art

 Lupine Publishers| Journal of Civil Engineering and its Architecture

Abstract

This article aims to review and illuminate the latest research conducted on structural insulated panels (SIP) together with the latest information of the current experiment carried out by the authors. The authors attempt to weight up both sides of argument regarding the design methods of SIP: affordability and applicability in construction industry, by taking up-to-date concrete technology and manufacture into consideration. The article primarily shines a light on the new material used for SIP’s skin and core. The fiber-carbon-reinforced polymer plate, glass-fibre reinforced magnesia cement boards, E-glass/polypropylene and glassfibre- reinforced polymer grid have recently been proposed for SIP components material. Besides, the performance of SIPs against wind load is investigated. Far little attention has been paid to SIP connections is in recent research. Economically, there is a need to innovatively alter an affordable material for SIP components to set the scene for its mass production.

Keywords: Structural Insulated Panel; Composite Structure; FRP

Introduction

The modular and prefabricated houses are becoming more popular as today’s customers prefer fast-constructed building in favor of time-consuming processed conventional building [1]. Consequently, due to the demand for prefabricated elements of building the need for structural insulated panels (SIPs) has been highlighted in recent years. Being lightweight, thermal performance and speed of installation are the main advantages of SIP which attracted the researchers’ attention. SIPs can serve the building as both wall and floor. Since emergence of SIP design, in 1930, proposed by the Forest Products Laboratory in U.S., there have been issues regarding its components material, connections, shear connectors and fire resistance [1]. Among aforementioned issues, the propose of an alternative material has attracted researchers’ attention nowadays [1-7]. The conventional material used for SIP skin are sheet metal, oriented strand board (OSB), plywood, cement board. Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) plate has been proposed as SIP skin, and also as shear connectors between the two skins of SIP [7-8]. Besides, glass-fibre reinforced magnesia cement board and E-glass/polypropylene laminate have been recently proposed to alter traditional SIP skin material [9-10]. The use of carbon-fibrereinforced polymer (CFRP) sheet for strengthening of SIP skins against lateral loads is becoming popular. Wood wool and cement board are used as SIP skin while expanded polystyrene (EPS) is used as SIP core in this experiment.

Excluding the scale reduction of specimens, the process of SIP assemblage in factory is simulated in this experiment. SIP as an external wall must be resistance enough against wind load. The dynamic response of SIPs subjected to windborne debris impact was examined and came to a conclusion that penetration resistance capacity of SIP is governed by toughness and flexibility of skin material [8]. The SIPs made of EPS core and metal skins was experimentally tested against windborne debris and theoretically evaluated using numerical models developed using LS-DYNA, an advanced general-purpose multiphasic simulation software package, to simulate their dynamic behavior [8]. As a general construction material standard, SIP shall be certified regarding the fire test as it is one of the significant stage of building products commercialization. The full-scaled natural fire tests on the buildings made of SIPs concluded that the SIPs using OSB and EPS met the requirements performance criterion based on UK building regulation [11]. By and large, this article provides the state-of-the art of SIP in order to set the stage for further research to enhance the SIP design. Looking from the economic view, the afore mentioned proposed SIP designs might not be able to compete with those of traditional designs. There is still a need for alteration of affordable material for SIP components, particularly SIP skin. Moreover, the future proposed SIP designs should be simple in order to set the scene for mass production and commercialization purposes.

The state-of-the art

SIPs are special type of precast sandwich panels. These composite building elements are composed of a thick layer of insulating core which is tightened between two thin layers of structural board. The use of SIP dates back to 1930, when the idea of stress skinned panels for building proposed by Forest Products Laboratory in the U.S. This idea has been improving by proposing methods of configuration and installation of SIP as well as proposing alternative material for its skin and core. Sheet metal, oriented strand board, plywood and cement board have been commonly utilised as SIP skin material while expanded polystyrene, extruded polystyrene and polyurethane have been utilised as its core. Figure 1 illustrates two houses made of SIPs. The use of FRP has been rapidly increasing in construction industry particularly for repair and strengthening structural concrete elements [12,13]. A SIP using FRP plates as shear connectors, as shown in Figure 2, was proposed and was analysed by finite element modeling. The shear connectors in design of SIPs has always been an issue as the core of SIP made of soft material may not resist against the shear loads. The three forms of discrete, segmental and continuous connectors were utilised in this study. The proposed SIPs made of EPS foam, FRP plate connectors and ordinary concrete were tested under four-point bending load configuration to evaluate bending failure [8]. However, the design of SIP in this research may not be able to compete with conventional SIP regarding the overall cost.

Figure 1: (a) SIP house with OSB skin [8]; (b) SIP house with fiber cement skin [8].

Figure 2: Cage, installation and shear connectors of proposed SIP [8].

FRP plates were recently put forward to confine top and sides of SIP in a research. The method of dry bond between concrete and FRP plates was adopted in favor of wet bond. FRP plates could act as water barriers which gave more weight to the proposed design of SIP. Overall, the bending tests on scaled and full scale proposed SIPs concluded their better performance compared to traditional solid sandwich panels [6]. The authors of this review article, have recently started a research investigation on SIPs to alter the conventional material of its skin for strengthening purposes. The use of carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets, in one, two and three layers, in the interface of the skin and the core, with wet bond, is under an experimental evaluation for buckling behavior of SIP under lateral load to increase its lateral resistance. The skin is made of wood wool and cement board while the core is made of EPS in this experiment. The CFRP-strengthened skins are tightened with core, by applying epoxy and placing the assembled SIPs under uniformly vertical compression using concrete blocks. Figure 3. illustrates the material used and also compression method in this experiment. The primary objective of the experiment is the strengthening of SIPs regarding its application as load-bearing wall. This research emphasises on the lateral loads imposed by wind, in high-rise building where SIPs are used as external walls. Recently, the resistance capacity of SIPs against high speed localized impact caused by windborne debris has been considered in another research.

Figure 3: (a) Cement board, wood wool, CFRP sheet and EPS; (b) cement board skin strengthened with CFRP sheet; (c) strengthened skins and wood wool before assembling SIPs; (d) SIP under uniform compression using concrete blocks.

The dynamic response of SIPs made of EPS and OSB subjected to windborne debris impact was evaluated regarding the penetration resistance capacity. The length of penetration was a key factor in this study. It concluded that the penetration resistance capacity of SIP is governed by toughness and flexibility of skin material [8]. The SIPs made of EPS core and metal skins were experimentally tested against windborne debris and theoretically evaluated using numerical models developed using LS-DYNA, an advanced generalpurpose multiphasic simulation software package, to simulate their dynamic behavior [14]. Apart from FRP material, the use of glassfibre reinforced magnesia cement boards has been proposed by researchers for the skin of SIP. The strength, deformability, failure mode, impact resistance and gradient temperature of full scale SIP panels using this material were experimentally evaluated. The finite element modeling results were in good agreement with findings of research. The research concluded that the proposed SIPs overcome deficiencies of traditional SIPs [10].

In 2013, the E-glass/ polypropylene laminate was proposed for SIP skin in order to overcome the deficiency of poor impact resistance of traditional SIP skin made of OSB. This research emphasised on retaining all energy-saving benefits of the traditional SIPs [9]. Regarding construction design for seismic loading, the effect of cyclic loading on the composite behavior of SIPs made of EPS foam and glass-fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) grid as shear connector was evaluated as the test set up is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Test set up for SIP using GFRP as shear connector [3].

The specimens with similar configurations, were tested under cyclic and monotonic loading. The results showed a lower performance of SIP under cyclic loading than monotonic loading. This was due to the cumulative fatigue loading which damaged the GFRP strands and debonded the interface between concrete and insulation [13]. Moreover, the dynamic modeling of structural concrete insulated panels have been theoretically proved, using finite element modeling, to suit for the design of energy efficient building in seismic area in a comprehensive study. In addition, this study has concluded that, the SIP using polystyrene foam, as insulating core material, was found as the superior to other wall systems regarding sound proofing as well as heating and cooling insulation [2].

Figure 5: Different view of SIP-made building after fire test [11].

Above all, the fire resistance of SIPs has always been a concern among researchers. A full-scaled natural fire test, which can rarely be found among experimental tests due to its high cost, was recently conducted on four two-storey buildings made of SIPs as illustrated in Figure 5. The SIPs made of OSB and Expanded polystyrene (EPS) were used for two buildings while OSB and Polyurethane (PUR) were used for the other two. The fire test was conducted using softwood timber cribs, with 30 and 60-min durations. It was concluded that theproposed SIPs met the requirements, proposed in document B, based on UK building regulation. Despite the significant deflection of floor, exceeding span/20, no collapse was observed for floors. In addition, there was no collapse or considerable deflection of wall in this test. The researchers attempted to identify the fire spread mechanism in the experimental building, via parameters effective in fire spreading [11].

Conclusion

This article provide the state-of-the art of SIP to set the stage for further research on improvement of SIP design. It has gone some ways towards enhancing our understanding of SIP design. The review has shown that among the current issues on the design of SIP, the use of new and affordable material for SIP skin is needed. In recent years, there has been no attention to the issue of SIP connections together and to other building elements. This issue is essentially needed to be investigated in further research as poor fitment of SIP connections reduces the insulation of entire building. Looking from economic view, the recent proposed SIP designs might not be able to compete with conventional wall and floor designs. There is still a need to alter affordable material in the design of SIP. Moreover, the proposed SIP designs are complicated and not suitable for mass production. Further research shall propose simple design of SIP to facilitate mass production and attain commercialisation purposes.

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