Study the Corrosion and Corrosion Protection of Brass Sculpture by Atmospheric Pollutants in Winter Season | Lupine Publishers

Material science journal | Lupine Publishers

 

Abstract

Brass is an important metalloid which is used in construction of sculptures. It is noticed that sculpture of brass is corroding due to interaction of pollutants. The pollutants develop chemical and electrochemical reaction on the surface of base material. Their concentrations of corrosive pollutants are increased in winter season. The air quality becomes very poor in winter season. Inside sculpture different forms of corrosion are observed like galvanic, pitting, stress, crevice etc. The major components of pollutants are oxides of carbon, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulphur, ammonia, ozone and particulates. Among these pollutants oxides of sulphur and ammonia are major corroder of brass. Ammonia is observed moist air to form ammonium hydroxide. It produces chemical reaction with brass metal and form complex compounds like [Zn(NH₄)₄](OH)₂, [Zn(NH₄)₄]SO₄, [Zn(NH₄)]CO₃, [Cu(NH₄)₄](OH)₂, [Cu(NH₄)₄]SO₄, [Cu(NH₄)]CO₃ etc. Oxides of sulphur react with moist air to exhibit sulphurous and sulphuric acids. They interact with brass to develop corrosion cell zinc metal and it is oxidized into Zn2+ ions and these ions are active to humidity and carbon dioxide to yield Zn(OH)₂.ZnCO₃.2H₂O. Copper is converted into Cu₂+ and it reacts with moist air and carbon dioxide to produce Cu(OH)₂.Cu(CO₃)2 and these complex compound detached on the surface of brass metal by rain water. These pollutants change their physical, chemical and mechanical properties and they also tarnish their facial appearance. Brass’ sculpture is affected by uniform corrosion. This type of corrosion can be control by nanocoating and electrospray techniques. For this work (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazono- 5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8]annulene and TiO₂ are used as nanocoating and electrospray materials. The corrosion rate of material was determined by gravimetric and potentiostat technique. The nanocoating and electrospray compounds are formed a composite layer on surface of base metal. The formation of composite layer is analyzed by thermal parameters like activation energy, heat of adsorption, free energy, enthalpy and entropy. These thermal parameters were calculated by Arrhenius, Langmuir isotherm and transition state equations. Thermal parameters results are depicted that both materials are adhered with sculpture through chemical bonding. The surface coverage area and coating efficiency indicates that nanocoating and electrospray are produced a protective barrier in ammonia and sulphur dioxide atmosphere.
Keywords:Brass sculpture; Corrosion; Atmospheric pollutants; Nanocoating; Electrospray; Sulphur dioxide; Composite barrier

Introduction

The sculpture of brass comes in contact of contaminated air thus its deterioration starts for protection various types methods can be applied [1]. Brass [2] has major components is copper and zinc. Zn reacts the hot air to produce ZnO which is active in humidity [3] to convert into Zn(OH)₂. In moist air [4], they form CuO, ZnO, Cu(OH)₂ and Zn(OH)₂. Both metals are active with sulphur to yield Cu₂S, CuS and ZnS and these metallic sulphides [5] react with moist air to give Cu(OH)₂, Zn(OH)₂, CuSO₄ and ZnSO₄. The hydroxides of these metals interact with CO2 to produce CuCO₃ and ZnCO₃. Sulphur dioxide [6] is a culprit of brass. It undergoes with Cu(OH)₂ and Zn(OH)₂ to convert into CuSO₄ and ZnSO₄. Moist SO₂ yields H₂SO3 and H₂SO₄ whereas they create acidic environment [7] for brass and generate corrosion cell on their surface. It accelerates disintegration [8] in metal components of sculpture of brass. Brass is highly sensitive to ambient of ammonia gas [9]. It interacts with humid atmosphere [10] to NH4OH and it deposits on the surface brass metal [11] thus it converts into a complex layer of [Cu(NH3)4] (OH)₂ and [Zn(NH3)4](OH)₂ that layer erosion starts in rain water. [Cu(NH3)4](OH)₂ and [Zn(NH3)4](OH)₂ complex compounds [12] come in contact of H₂SO₄ environment to produce [Cu(NH3)4]SO₄ and [Zn(NH3)4]SO₄ that complex layer is eroded in rain water. In acidic medium brass outer face has developed CuSO₄ and ZnSO₄ when dust particulates [13] are deposited on their surface which contains Fe to remove Cu and Zn from outer surface. Dust particulates are possessed oxides of alkali metal in presence of moisture, it produces NaOH or KOH [14] that is create hostile environment for Zn and it forms complex compound [15] Na₂[Zn(OH)4]or Na[Zn(OH)₃.H₂O] or Na[Zn(OH)₃.(H₂O)₃]. The oxides of NO2 reacts with moist air to give HNO3 that acid produces chemical reaction with Cu and it converted into Cu(NO3)2. Some organic acids [16] available in air like acetic acid which develop corrosive environment for Cu and Zn which converts Cu into Cu₂(CH₃COO)4.H₂O and Zn into (CH₃COO)₆. Zn4O complex compounds [17]. They are eroded by rain water on the surface of brass. Organic compounds [18] like amnio and sulpur increased day by day in atmosphere. They develop hostile environment for brass and corroding it. Corrosive pollutants [19] concentrations like oxides of carbon, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulphur, hydride of sulphur and nitrogen, ozone and particulates are enhanced due to industrials wastes, effluents, flues and other factors are like burning of coals, woods and cow dung cakes. Harmful pollutants [20] come into atmosphere through agricultural wastes, human wastes, pharmaceutical wastes, household wastes, food wastes and decomposition of living things. Various types of transports like road, water and air are evolving CO, NO2 and SO₂ gases which produce acidic environments for brass. Several types of techniques are used to control the corrosion of brass like metallic coating; polymeric coating, paint coating, organic and inorganic coating of materials but these didn’t give satisfactory results in corrosive medium. Some organic and inorganic inhibitors are applied to protect the corrosion of materials in acidic but they provide good results. Hot dipping, electroplating and galvanization techniques is used as protective tools for brass corrosion in acidic medium but these methods don’t shave base metals. In this work it is to mitigate corrosion of brass corrosion by nanocoating and filler techniques. These materials form composite barrier on the surface base metal and blocked porosities and stop diffusion or osmosis process of pollutants.

Experimental

Brass coupons 15sqcm were taken for experimental analysis. Samples surface were rubbed with emery paper, rinsed with acetone, dry them and kept into desiccators. Sample kept 20meter height of roof in open sky and it observed that colour of brass can be changed. Corrosion rate was determined in winter season by weight loss method. The concentration of SO₂ in November 75ppm, December 90ppm, January 105ppm and February 120ppm and temperatures recorded in this period were 298K, 294K, 291K and 295K. Synthesis organic compound (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazono- 5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8]annulene used as nanocoating and TiO₂ as filler and corrosion of brass metal calculated in above mentioned concentrations and temperatures in winter season. Both compounds formed a composite barrier on surface of base metal (Figures 1-4). Surface adsorption phenomenon studied by thermal parameters like activation energy, heat of adsorption, free energy, enthalpy and entropy.Potentiostat/Galvanostat model EG&G used for corrosion potential, corrosion current and corrosion current density. Brass sample put between H₂|Pt electrode as auxiliary electrode and Hg₂Cl₂|HgCl₂ electrode reference electrode.

Figure 1: .

Figure 2:

Figure 3:

Figure 4:

Synthesis of (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazono-5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8] annulene

Phenatharene was oxidized into [1,1’-biphenyl]-2,2’- dicarboxylic acid by the use of H₂O2 in presence of CH₃COOH. When [1,1’-biphenyl]-2,2’-dicarboxylic acid was treated in PCl₅ in benzene solution at 0 oC temperature, [1,1’-biphenyi]-2,2’-dicarbonyl chloride was obtained. It reacted with diazomethane to produce yield [1,1’-biphenyl]-2,2’-dicarboxodiazomethan which heated Cu(acac)₂ in presence THF to yield (Z)-dibenzo[a,c][8]annulene- 5,8-dione. It was used with hydrazine hydrate in ethyl alcohol to give (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazone-5,8-dihydrodibenzo[a,c][8]annulene.

Results and Discussion

Brass metal was exposed in moist SO₂ environment in 75ppm, 90ppm, 105ppm and 120ppm concentrations and 298 0K, 294 0K, 291 0K and 295 0K temperatures. The corrosion rate of brass metal was determined in winter season without coating and with coating (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazone-5,8-dihydrodibenzo[a,c][8]annulene and TiO₂ electrospray of by weight loss formula K= 534 W/DAT (where W is weight loss, D is density and T is time) and their values were mentioned in (Table 1)

Table 1:Corrosion of Brass Sculpture in Winter Season in SO₂ medium.

The corrosion rate of brass metal was recorded in the months of November, December, January and February, the results (Table 1) was shown that corrosion rate of metal increased in January to February but theses values were reduced with coating and filler materials like (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazone-5,8-dihydrodibenzo[a,c][8] annulene and TiO₂. It was clearly noticed in (Figure 5) K versus Month. Brass metal kept into 75ppm, 90ppm, 105ppm and 120ppm of SO₂ medium in month of Nov, Dec, Jan and Feb without coating. It was coated with 25mM, 30mM, 40mM and 45mM concentrations of (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazone-5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8]annulene, and again kept into same concentrations of SO₂. After coating of (6Z)-5, 8-dihydrazone-5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8]annulene electrospray coating of TiO₂ used at 5mM, 10mM, 15mm and 20mM concentrations and same concentrations SO₂ Nov to Feb. The corrosion rates of in these three cases were written in (Table 1). These results were shown that corrosion rates without coating increased, it values decreased coating with (6Z)-5, 8-dihydrazone-5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8]annulene but their values more reduced with TiO₂ electrospray. These trends were shown in (Figure 6) which plotted K versus C. The corrosion rates of brass metal at different temperatures 298 0K, 294 0K, 291 0K and 295 0K without and with coating were recorded in (Table 1). The addition of nanocoating and electrospray were reduced the corrosion rates as temperatures variation, it noticed in K versus T in (Figure 7).

Figure 5: K(mmpy) Vs Months for brass metals.

Figure 6: KVs T nanocoating and electrospray.

Figure 7: %CE Vs C(mM) nanocoating and electrospray.

Figure 8: %CE Vs T for nanocoating and electrospray.

(Figure 8) plot between %C (percentage coating efficiency) versus C (concentrations in mM) indicated that nanocoating compound (6Z)-5, 8-dihydrazone-5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8]annulene increased coating efficiency but TiO₂ electrospray produced more coating efficiency with respect of nanocoating compound. The values of % coating efficiency were calculated by formula %CE = (1-K/Ko) X100 (where Ko is corrosion rate without coating and K is corrosion rate with coating) and their values were given (Table 1). (Figure 9) show plot between %C (percentage coating efficiency) versus T (temperature in K). This figure indicated that percentage coating efficiency enhanced as temperatures varies in Nov to Feb months and their values were recorded in (Table 1). Figure 6 plotted between θ (surface coverage area) versus C (concentration in mM) and covered areas were produced by (6Z)-5, 8-dihydrazone- 5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8]annulene and TiO₂ were mentioned in (Table 1). The results were shown that nanocoating compound occupied less surface areas with respect of electrospray. The surface coverage area developed by nanocoating and electrospray compound was calculated by formula θ = (1- K/Ko). (Figure 10) plotted between θ (surface coverage area) versus T (temperature) noticed that temperatures were varies from Nov to Dec but surface coverage area and electrospray values were increased and their values were written in (Table 1).

Figure 9: Vs C nanocoating and electrospray.

Figure 10: θ Vs T for nanocoating and electrospray.

Table 2:Thermal Parameters of Brass Sculpture in Winter Season by Nanocoating of (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazono-5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8] annulene [NC] in SO₂ Medium.

Composite surface formation was studied by Arrhenius equation, Langmuir isotherm and others thermal parameters like activation energy, heat of adsorption, free energy, enthalpy and entropy and their values were recorded in (Table 2). (Table 2) Thermal Parameters of Brass Sculpture in Winter Season by Nanocoating of (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazono-5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8]annulene [NC] in SO₂ Medium. Activation energy of without coating, with coating and electrospray coating were determined by Arrhenius equation d(logK)/dT = A – Ea/2.303RT and their values were recorded in (Table 2). The plot between logK versus 1/T was found to be straight line as shown in (Figure 11). The plot between log K and 1/T found to be straight line. It observed that activation before coating activation energy high but decreased after coating. These trends indicated that nanocoating compound adhered on the surface of base metal. Heat of adsorption was calculated by Langmuir isotherm log(θ/1-θ) = log(AC) – q/2.303R T and their values were mentioned in (Table 2). Its values were found to negative, it indicated nanocoating compound formed chemical bond with base metal. (Figure 12) log(θ/1-θ) versus 1/T proved results of heat of adsorption.Free energy values of nancoating compound were determined by formula ΔG = -2.303 RT log(33.3K) and their values were recorded in (Table 2). Their values found to be negative; it noticed that nanocoating compound adhered on the surface of base metal by chemical bond. Enthalpy and entropy values of nanocoating and electrospray compounds were calculated by transition state equation K=k T/N h e_ΔS/R e_-ΔE/RT and their values were mentioned in (Table 2). These values were found to be negative which indicated these compounds adhered on the surface of metals. All thermal parameters versus T (temperature) plotted in (Figure 13) which indicated composite barrier formed on surface of base metal. Thermal parameters Values of TiO₂ eleectrospray activation energy, heat of adsorption, free energy, enthalpy and entropy were written in (Table 3) and their plot against T (temperature) in (Figure 14). (Table 3) results indicated electrospray compound formed chemical bond with nanocoating compound. (Table 3) Thermal Parameters of Brass Sculpture in Winter Season by Electrospray of TiO₂ in SO₂ Medium Potentiostat results were determined with help of equation I = βa βc/2.3 (βa+βc) Ic and corrosion rate K=0.128 X Ic X( E/d) ( Ic is corrosion current, equivalent weight and d is density) and their values were written in (Table 4). (Figure 15) was plotted ΔE(corrosion potential versus I(corrosion current density). The results of (Table 4) observed that without coating corrosion potential high but with coating nanocoating and electrospray reduced corrosion potential. (Table 4) Potentiostat results in SO₂ in meduim with nanocoating and electrospray.

Figure 11: logK Vs 1/T nanocoating and electrospray.

Figure 12: log(θ/1-θ) Vs 1/T nanocoating and electrospray.

Figure 13: Thermal parameters Vs T for nanocoating and electrospray.

Figure 14: Thermal parameters Vs T nanocoating and electrospray.

Table 3:Thermal Parameters of Brass Sculpture in Winter Season by Electrospray of TiO₂ in SO₂ Medium.

Table 4:Potentiostat results in SO₂ in meduim with nanocoating and electrospray.

Figure 15: ΔE Vs Ic(mA) for nanocoating and electrospray.

Conclusion

It observed that winter season SO₂ concentration increased. In this season humidity level found to more so it oxidized sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid and created hostile environment for brass sculpture. It corroded zinc into zinc sulphate in longer period it produced leaching corrosion. Such types of corrosion controlled by the use of nanocoating of (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazono-5,8-dibenzo[a,c] [8]annulene and TiO₂ electrospray. The results of activation energy, heat of adsorption, free energy, enthalpy and entropy values indicated that nanocoating compound adhered with chemical bonding. Thermal parameters results of electrospray confirmed that TiO₂ bonded with (6Z)-5,8-dihydrazono-5,8-dibenzo[a,c][8] annulene chemical bonding. Both compound created composite barrier on the surface of base metal which produced anticorrosive barrier. The nanocoating compound developed lot of porosities during coating. These porosities blocked by electrospray and it increased coating efficiency and surface coverage area.

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Lupine Publishers | Nanotechnology in Concrete: Small Things Shape a Great Future

Lupine Publishers | Journal of Civil Engineering Research

Abstract

Concrete changes the world. Nanotechnology changes the concrete world. The nano-engineered concrete can be intelligent, strong, durable, easy to fabricate, recyclable and eco-friendly. Its potential benefits include improved infrastructures reliability and longevity, enhanced structural performance and durability, improved safety against natural hazards and vibrations, reduced lifecycle costs in operating and managing infrastructures, and reduced burdens on resources, energy and environment.

Concrete related to sustainable development of human society

Figure 1: Concrete price and usage; b) Energy consumption for concrete production; c) The cumulative carbon sequestration from 1930 to 2013; d) Elemental composition of the earth; e) Cement demand prediction [1-5].
Concrete's excellent properties and low cost have made it tremendous quantity of concrete (4 billion cubic meters per year) the world's most widely used engineering material (Figure 1a). A has been consumed worldwide for infrastructure construction. China accounts for approximately 60% of the total concrete consumption with the per capita amount of 2 cubic meters. The manufacturing of cement, a key ingredient in concrete, has a significant impact on nature source, energy and environment. In fact, concrete has lower energy consumption and carbon emissions compared to other engineering materials (Figure 1b). According to recent research, as carbon sequestration, concrete can reabsorb a large fraction of CO2 released from cement production. From 1930 to 2013, carbonating concrete absorbed 43% of the cumulative CO2 emissions associated with the high-temperature calcination of carbonate minerals during cement production (Figure 1c). In addition, in terms of resource, it is almost impossible to find an alternative construction material to concrete. This is because O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K and Mg comprise 98% of the crustal composition, which are the main components of concrete (Figure 1d). In the long term, on the basis of the urban development of the developing countries and the world's population growth rate, concrete will continue to be massively consumed as construction materials in the whole world. Taking the developing countries such as China and India for example, concrete usage converted by the total amount of cement will nearly double in the coming several decades (Figure 1e). Therefore, concrete is the largest material foundation bearing the civilization in today’s society and even in future society. The production and utilization of concrete are closely related to source, energy and environmental issues, thus having a strong effect on the sustainable development of human society [1-5].

Improving concrete performance to meet the ever-increasing demand for infrastructure construction

Figure 2: Multi-component, multi-phase and multi-scale nature [4].
Concrete has a multi-component, multi-phase and multi-scale nature and is considered as the most complicated composite while fabricated with the simplest production process (Figure 2). The feature of thermodynamic metastability has an effect on the concrete volume stability. Under deformation, shrinkage and loading, it is vulnerable to interrupt or destroy homophase continuity and heterophase bonding. In addition, concrete is known for its brittleness with low tensile strength, poor deformation performance and high cracking tendency. The presence of cracks tends to weaken the integrity and bearing capacity of structures and severely affect their safety, serviceability and durability, causing potential safety problems on construction. Especially with the trend toward large-scale and complicated infrastructures, extreme service environment, multi-factor coupling and ever-enlarging application field, these problems are becoming more serious and facing with a plenty of new challenges as well. In this case, high- performance and smart/multifunctional concrete becomes the only way to implement the sustainable development of concrete structures. High-performance and smart/multifunctional concrete has excellent mechanical properties, durability and processability needed for structural material. Meanwhile, it also presents selfsensing, self-healing and self-adjusting features. Making use of high- performance and smart/multifunctional concrete can effectively enhance the safety, comfort and durability of infrastructures and maintain a coordinated relationship between infrastructure and environment.

Nanotechnology adding new impetus for developing high-performance and smart/multifunctional concrete

As shown in Figure 2, concrete is a multi-scale complex system. Generally, the normal aggregate in concrete has a particle size ranging from millimeters to centimeters and the particle size of ordinary cement itself is usually 7-200|im. However, cement hydrated phases are primary nano structured materials mainly condensed by C-S-H gel tens of nanometers in size. Therefore, due to its natural attribute, concrete has the properties of nanomaterials. In addition, the scientific community and industry are always spontaneous to manipulate the nano-scale behavior inside concrete using nanotechnology to enhance or modify concrete performance in the process of concrete development, such as nano crystals, mineral admixtures and chemical admixture used for concrete preparation. It should be recognized that nanotechnology in concrete is not a new technique. It is just attributed to the rapid development of nanotechnology in recent two decades improving the understanding of the nano-scale behavior inside concrete and enriching the methods for concrete reinforcement and modification via nanotechnology. In this manner, research in the application of nanotechnology in concrete reaches a very active period.
Awareness of nanotechnology applications in concrete starts at 2001. The addition of nano-SiO₂ to concrete was first used for concrete reinforcement. After that, nano-ZrO₂, nano-TiO₂ and nanocarbon material were applied one after another for the enhancement and modification of concrete. Much work indicated that the big gains in mechanical, durable and functional properties of concrete were achieved by nano nonmetallic oxide and metallic oxide modification. The addition of nano-SiO₂ increased the 3d/28d compressive and flexural strengths by 48.1%/48.7% and 45.6%/16.0%, respectively. Meanwhile, the addition of nano-SiO2 can increase the freeze-thaw resistance, chloride penetration and permeability, abrasion resistance and fire resistance of concrete [6]. The fracture toughness of concrete can be enhanced by 400% when nano-ZrO₂ is used as fillers [7]. The flexural and compressive strengths of concrete with nano-TiO₂ at age of 28 d achieve increases of 87% /6.69 MPa and 12.26%/12.2 MPa with respect to concrete without nano-TiO2, respectively. Nano-TiO₂ can also endow concrete with the photocatalytic effect to decompose both organic pollutants and oxides such as NO, NO₂ and SO₂ [8]. Moreover, extensive research endeavors demonstrated the potential of various nano carbon materials including carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs), and graphene for enhancing/modifying concrete materials [9].
Figure 3: Graphene platelets acting like�filters�for chloride ions [11].
The observed best performance enhancement of concrete with CNTs or CNFs include a relative/absolute enhancements of 79%/74MPa and 64.4%/5.6MPa in compressive and flexural strength [10], a 34.28% increase in tensile strength, a 270% increase in fracture toughness, a 14% increase in fracture energy, an over 600% improvement in Vickers’s hardness at the early ages of hydration, a 2200% increase in deflection, a 130% increase in ductility, an over 430% improvement in resilience and a 227% increase in Young’s modulus. Graphene can improve the tensile, flexural and compressive strength of concrete by 78.6%, 60.7% and 38.9%, respectively. The presence of CNTs obviously enhances the transport property and durability of concrete materials. Graphene significantly improves the moisture transport performance, the acid resistance and the chloride ion penetration resistance (as listed in Table 1 and Figure 3) of the concrete.
Table 1: Chloride migration coefficient of concrete with grapheme.
DRCM: Chloride migration coefficient from non-steady-state migration test
The electrical resistivity reduction extent of concrete materials than that of concrete without CNTs. The damping capacity of with CNTs/nano carbon black composite filler is 99.9%. The concrete with CNTs is 1.6 times than that of concrete without CNTs. thermal conductivity of CNTs concrete composites is 85% greater The addition of CNTs into concrete materials can lead to a 27%decrease in electromagnetic wave reflectivity at a frequency of 2.9 GHz. Additionally, the composites with CNTs, CNFs or graphene feature smart self-sensing (e.g. sensing stress, strain, crack, damage, temperature and smoke), self-heating and steel cathodic protection performances. Nano fillers not only can enhance/modify the also have strong impact on the rheology and workability of fresh concrete [11]. Nano fillers have higher surface energy compared with cement particle. Therefore, as shown in Figure 4, the addition of nano fillers raises the system energy of cementitious composites, thus importing negative entropy to the system of composites.
Figure 4: System of nano-engineered concrete [7].
The mechanisms of nano-core effect on the enhancement/ modification are mainly due to two aspects: intrinsically excellent mechanical, electrical, thermal and electromagnetic properties and morphology features (high aspect ratio); and promoting cement hydration, optimizing C-S-H gel structure and forming ultrafine and compact crystals, improving interfacial transition zone and pore structure, controlling nano-scale cracks, autogenous curing, improving early strength and decreasing autogenous shrinkage through nucleating effect (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Schematic diagram of effect of nano fillers on the hydration products growth around cement particles [11].

Conclusion

As a new industrial revolution, nanotechnology infiltrating in the field of civil engineering provides new impetus for developing high- performance and smart/multifunctional concrete. To restructure or modify material structural units in nanoscale via interpreting material genetic code and drawing the blueprint of nanoscale properties provides new theory and method to develop high- performance, durable, smart/multifunctional, and environmentally friendly concrete (Figure 6). The utilization of nanotechnology helps promote the understanding of concrete behavior, manipulate and design concrete performance, lower the concrete production and ecological cost, extend the service life of engineering infrastructures and reduce the relative demand of concrete. It is of profound significance to guide the sustainable development and application of concrete material and infrastructures.
Figure 6: Nano-engineered concrete based on nano-core effect.

Acknowledgment

The authors thank the funding supported from the National Science Foundation of China (51578110 and 51428801).

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Interior Environmental Design, Heal? | Lupine Publishers

Open Access Journal of Complementary & Alternative Medicine | lupine Publishers

 

Abstract

Osteoporosis is a largely preventable disease that is characterized by bones that are porous and have a low density. Osteoporosis is associated with an increased risk of fractures. This condition can often be reduced, eliminated, or prevented by following healthy lifestyle guidelines. Public health leaders and advocates, government and non-governmental agencies, communities, health-care professionals are responsible for preventing osteoporosis. Nutritional deficiency, hormonal disorders, lack of exercise, immobilization and smoking can lead to poor development of bone and accelerate the loss of bone mass. Awareness and understanding are the keys to reducing the overwhelming incidence of osteoporosis. Great progress has been made in reaching out to the public through health campaigns, research, and publications; however, as the statistics show, the fight is not over.

Introduction

Osteoporosis poses a significant public health issue, causing significant morbidity and mortality. Osteoporosis is a disease in which the density and quality of bone are reduced. This disease is characterized by bone fragility and an increased susceptibility to fractures, especially of the spine, hip and wrist, although any bone can be affected. The likelihood of these fractures increases with age in both women and men. The loss of bone occurs silently and progressively. Often there are no symptoms until the first fracture occurs. Around the world, 1 in 3 women and 1 in 5 men are at risk of an osteoporotic fracture. In fact, an osteoporotic fracture is estimated to occur every 3 seconds [1]. In adults, the daily removal of small amounts of bone mineral, a process called resorption, must be balanced by an equal deposition of new mineral if bone strength is to be preserved. When this balance tips toward excessive resorption, bones weaken (osteopenia) and over time can become brittle and prone to fracture (osteoporosis). There is evidence that fracture risk is increased in people on prolonged use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and glucocorticoid therapy.

Who is at risk?

Awareness of risk factors can help to take steps to reduce bone mineral loss. Fixed risk factors like disorders and medications can weaken bone and affect balance [2]. Fixed risk factors include increasing age, female gender, family history of osteoporosis, ethnicity, menopause, hysterectomy, rheumatoid arthritis, hypogonadism in men etc. Most modifiable risk factors like alcohol, smoking, low body mass index, poor nutrition, vitamin D deficiency, eating disorders, physical inactivity also can directly impact bone biology and result in a decrease in bone mineral density (BMD).

Preventing osteoporosis

It is now known that osteoporosis is a preventable and treatable disease and not a normal part of ageing [3]. Although genetic factors play a significant role in determining whether an individual is at heightened risk of osteoporosis, lifestyle factors such as diet and physical activity also influence bone development in youth and the rate of bone loss later in life. After mid-20s, bone thinning is a natural process and cannot be completely stopped. The thicker the bones, the less likely they are to become thin enough to break. Young women in particular need to be aware of their osteoporosis risk and take steps to slow its progress and prevent fractures. Optimal bone growth and development in youth is vital in the prevention of osteoporosis as it is an important determinant of the risk of osteoporotic fracture during later life. It is estimated a 10% increase of peak bone mass in children reduces the risk of an osteoporotic fracture during adult life by 50% [4]. Once peak bone mass has been reached, it is maintained by a process called remodeling. This is a continuous process in which old bone is removed and new bone is created. The renewal of bone is responsible for bone strength throughout life. Factors that cause a higher rate of bone remodeling will ultimately lead to a more rapid loss of bone mass and high risk of fractures. Adequate calcium levels are crucial for bone health and muscle performance, which are closely associated with balance and fall risk [5]. Vitamin D plays a major role to maintain serum calcium levels through enhancement of small-intestine absorption [6]. Sunlight exposure, fortified foods, egg yolks, saltwater fish, liver, are rich sources of Vitamin D. Due to increasingly indoor lifestyles, young people often don’t get enough vitamin D. Parents should encourage children spend more time participating in sports and outdoor physical activity and less screen time in front of computers or televisions to maintain a healthy level of this key vitamin.

How is osteoporosis diagnosed?

Though traditional X-rays cannot measure bone density, they can identify spine fractures. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) is the best technique for diagnosis and monitoring therapy. It is a low radiation X-ray used to measure spine and hip bone density and can also measure bone density of the whole skeleton. Other methods for diagnosing osteoporosis like Bone Turnover Markers (BTM) and radiological assessments have been used extensively in clinical trials and epidemiological studies.

Medical Management

Osteoporosis is potentially the most serious of menopause symptoms. The maximum bone loss occurs in first two years of menopause. Estrogen hormone therapy after menopause (previously referred to as hormone replacement therapy or HRT) has been shown to prevent bone loss, increase bone density, and prevent bone fractures. Estrogen is available orally, as a skin patch and in combination with progesterone as pills and patches. Progesterone given routinely along with estrogen helps prevent uterine cancer that might result from estrogen use alone [7]. It was thought that hormone therapy could ward off heart disease, osteoporosis, and cancer, while improving women’s quality of life. The findings emerged from clinical trials showed that long-term use of hormone therapy poses serious risks and may increase the risk of heart attack and stroke. Bisphosphonates are the most commonly prescribed medications to treat osteoporosis [8]. These drugs slow bone loss by causing certain cells involved in bone breakdown to undergo programmed cell death.

Regular exercise is essential

Regular exercise helps decreasing the risk of falls, probably because balance is improved, and muscle strength is increased. Build up slowly and aim to gradually increase the repetitions of each exercise over time. It is important to avoid exercises that can injure already weakened bones. In patients over 40 and those with heart disease, obesity, diabetes mellitus, and high blood pressure, exercise should be prescribed and monitored by physicians. Extreme levels of exercise like lifting heavy weights and forward bending may not be healthy for the bones. Exercises to correct postural deformities like Dowager’s hump should be incorporated in therapy.

Weight-bearing exercises

Several studies demonstrate the health benefits of exercise, including reduced risk of falls and fractures. Weight-bearing and muscle-strengthening exercises are ideal for osteoporosis prevention because it improves agility, posture, balance, and strength to prevent falls [5]. A statistically significant effect of exercise on BMD was reported by a systematic review investigating whether exercise could prevent bone loss and fractures in postmenopausal women [9]. It was found that high-force exercise involving lower limbs was the most effective exercise for femur neck BMD. Brisk walking is highly recommended, and patients can adapt their speed to the current fitness level. Sit-to-stand, Mini-squats, Calf raises, Wall press-up, Push-ups are good examples of exercises that patients can perform at home. Low-impact weight-bearing exercises like aerobics, using stair-step machines, fast walking on a treadmill are advised if high force exercises are contraindicated.

Muscle-strengthening exercises

Numerous studies have shown that strength training can play a role in slowing bone loss, and several show it can even build bone [10,11]. This is tremendously useful to help offset age-related declines in bone mass. Activities that put stress on bones can nudge bone-forming cells into action. Body weight exercises like squats, sit to stand; rising up on your toes can be performed at home. Lifting weights, using elastic exercise bands and using weight machines use muscle strength, where the action of the tendons pulling on the bones boosts bone strength. High-impact weight-bearing exercises help build bones and keep them strong. Cycling and swimming do not cause positive effects on BMD; thus, these are not the most suitable exercises for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis [12]. Swimming is neither a weight-bearing exercise nor a strengthtraining exercise. This means that if you are trying to prevent or fight osteoporosis, swimming should not be the only workout that you do.

Diet is Important

Many of the nutrients and food components we consume may influence bone by various mechanisms, including alteration of bone structure, the rate of bone metabolism, the endocrine and/ or paracrine system, and homeostasis of calcium and possibly of other bone-active mineral elements [13]. The most important nutrients for people with osteoporosis are calcium and vitamin D. Vitamin D helps body absorb calcium. Postmenopausal and senile osteoporosis can be prevented by adequate calcium intake during growth. Due to the accelerated muscular, skeletal and endocrine development, reduced intake of calcium and vitamin D during periods of growth can have a negative influence on bone development [14]. Bone mineral deposition during pubertal growth appears to depend on dietary absorption of calcium, and on reducing its excretion, and this is dependent on adequate Vitamin D status. A well-balanced diet with plenty of milk, fish, fruits and vegetables, cheese, and yogurt is important for bone health. The presence of lactose, caseinate and citrate in milk and dairy products helps better calcium absorption in relation to other dietary calcium sources. Vegetables with dark green leaves are also sources of calcium, but the calcium they contain has low bioavailability [15]. Osteoporosis experts recommend 800 to 1,200IU of vitamin D per day.

Preventing falls

Fall prevention helps prevent osteoporosis-related morbidity. Interventions include vision and hearing correction, removing trip or fall hazards, evaluating suspected neurologic problems, avoiding medications that cause imbalance, and advising hip pad protectors for those with significant risk. A person with osteoporosis is especially at risk of breaking bones from falling because the bones are so much weaker than normal healthy bones. Certain steps that can make a house safer for someone with osteoporosis is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Steps to prevent falls.

The most effective treatment is provided by multidisciplinary approach involving physical therapist, psychologist, and nutritionist for consultation. Clinicians should consider risk-assessment to estimate absolute fracture risk and appropriate pharmacologic agents to prevent osteoporosis are to be prescribed [16].

Life style factors

Maintaining healthy habits can also reduce the risk or severity of osteoporosis. Smoking is an independent risk factor for osteoporosis as it reduces the amount of estrogen the body produces, and alcohol hinders calcium absorption [17]. It is also critical to maintain a healthy body weight. Nutrition is a modifiable pathogenic factor for osteoporosis. A holistic approach to bone health combining nutrition, physical activity and fall prevention is the key. Impactful public health education initiatives can create awareness about osteoporosis. Social media like Facebook groups and Twitter that provide a number of tools and resources as well as a forum for people to discuss osteoporosis shall be considered. Community programs with non-profit organizations reinforced at the local level can extend the program’s reach and messages.

Conclusion

Studies should be conducted to quantify the status of bone health of at-risk population, their level of awareness and steps to improve bone health. This small investment will pay rich dividends in the long run by preventing the occurrence of fractures and improving the bone health and quality of life. Health workers must work together to improve health literacy and prevention awareness to ensure that people understand the principles of bone health.

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The Biodiversity of Aquatic Gastropods in the Steppe Zone the West Siberian Plain (Western Siberia, Russia) | Lupine Publishers

Earth and Environment journals | Lupine Publishers

 Abstract

This study describes the species diversity, abundance and biomass of gastropods in the ecosystems of the southern part of Western Siberia (Karasukskii district, Novosibirsk Oblast). Distribution and Quantitative Characteristics of Common Species of Gastropoda are calculated. Twenty-one species of snails belonging to seven families were recorded, Lymnaeidae, Planorbidae, Bulinidae, Physidae, Bithynhdae, Succineidae, and Zonitidae. The biodiversity of mollusks was studied using the Shannon- Weaver index.

Introduction

The ecology of pond snails has been studied in the waterbodies of the central part of European Russia [1], but the authors emphasize the necessity of conducting similar studies in Siberia, and in other regions of our country. Gastropoda are widely distributed in the water bodies of the southern part of Western Siberia. They are an important component of benthic communities and take part in a number of trophic relationships. Some information about the ecology of freshwater snails’ species is presented in the publications [2-4] but many aspects are still poorly studied. In particular, quantitative data on the communities of mollusks are scanty [5,6]. We, in a previous work [7] Jacquard index biodiversity gastropods are calculated. The aim of the present investigation was to identify the occurrence and distribution of freshwater snails in the lake, rivers systems from the steppe zone the West Siberian Plain.

Materials and Methods

The species composition and biomass of snails in August of 2009 were studied (Novosibirsk Oblast, south of Western Siberia). Samples were collected in different parts in the Karasuk River in the upstream(near the villages of Bystrukha N 54026’ 53,2’’; E 800 55’ 50,5’ and Chernovka N 540 09’ 53,2’’; E. 800 02’ 54,2’) and downstream near the villages of Gramotino and Sorochikha (N 500 45’ 19,4’’; E. 780 20’ 15,1’ and N 530 43’ 19,7’’; E 770 56’ 29,5’), and in six lakes of the Karasuk system: Astrodym N 53036’ 59,4’’; E 770 48’ 04,7’, Krivoye (reaches: Blagodatnoye N 530 49’ 59,3’’; E. 780 03’ 17,3’’, Sopatoye N 530 48’ 28,7’’; E 78002’ 18,5’’ and Gusinoye N 530 48’ 13,0’’; E 78004’ 00,8’’), Krotovo N 530 43’ 30’’; E 770 51’ 31’’, Kusgan N 53044’ 23’’; E 770 53’25’’, Melkoye N 530 47’ 37,9’’; E 780 16’34,91’’, Titovo N 530 45’ 25,8’’; E 770 56’13,2’’.
The hydrological and hydrochemical characteristics of the rivers and lakes in steppe zone in the West - Siberian Plain are presented in the study by Savchenko (2010). The study was based at the Karasuk Field Station (Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals Russian Academy of Sciences; Karasukskii district, Novosibirsk region). Mollusks were collected according to the standard technique [8]. For a quantitative analysis of snails in the lake-river systems they were collected by hand from sites of 0.25 m2 (50х50 cm). The control sites were in open parts and in macrophyte stands at a depth of 0.1-1.1 m. To determine biomass, the collected mollusks were dried on a filter paper for ≥1 min and weighed. The species identification was made according to the shell and genital system using the keys [9,10]. The ICA index (index of copulatory apparatus) was one of the major criteria for the species definition of mollusks. The species definition within the Lymnaeidae index for mature specimens into account [6].

Results

Species Composition of Gastropods

In the Karasuk river - lakes system, of 21 species from 7 families of gastropods were recorded: Pond Snail - [Lymnaeidae]; Lymnaea (Radix) auricularia (L.,1758), L. (Peregriana) balthica (L., 1758); L. (P.) fontinalis (Studer, 1820), L. (P.) ovata (Drap., 1805), L. (P.) ampla (Hartmann, 1821), L. (P.) tumida (Held, 1836), and Lymnaea (Stagnicola) saridalensis (Mozley, 1934) and Great Pond Snails (Lymnaea) stagnalis (L., 1758), L. (L.) fragilis (L., 1758), L. (L.) doriana (Bourguignat, 1862); Ramshorn snails, Planorbis planorbis (L., 1758), Anisus vortex (L., 1758), A. contortus (L.,1758), Segmentina nitida (Mull., 1774) [Planorbidae], and Planorbarius corneus (L., 1758) [Bulinidae]; Physa fontinalis (L., 1758), Aplexa nypnorum (L., 1758) [Physidae]; Bithynia tentaculata (L., 1758) and B. troscheli (Paasch, 1842) [Bithyniidae]. Terrestrial gastropods were defined by genus, Succinea sp. [Succineidae] and Zonitoides sp. [Zonitidae].

Figure 1: Distribution (%) of gastropods in the Karasuk River and lakes of the Karasuk system

Table 1: Abundance and biomass of gastropods and the Shannon index in water objects from the Karasuk system.

Sixteen gastropod species were recorded in the river and 20 in the lakes (Figure 1). Fifteen species were common for both the river and the lakes. The snails L. (P.) ovata were found in the river only and five species were found only in the lakes: (L. (L.) doriana and L. (P.) ampla, only in the Astrodym lake; S. nitida only in the Krotovo lake; A. nypnorum only in the Melkoye lake). Ramshorn snails P. corneus were found in the Krivoye Krotovo and Titovo lakes. Gastropoda in modern freshwater water bodies (the steppe zone West Siberian Plain) are represented by Pulmonata and Prosobranchia species. Both secondary aquatic pulmonate snails (four families) and terrestrial species (two families) were recorded in the study area. The terrestrial snails inhabit plants that grow close to the water’s edge and appear in the samples of aquatic species. Prosobranchia snails are primarily aquatic; they are the most ancient colonizers of the continental water bodies and are represented by only one family, Bithyniidae. Both bithyniid snails were recorded only in the upper stream of the Karasuk River (close to Bystrukha Village) and in Krotovo Lake [11].

Assessment of the Abundance and Biomass of Gastropods

The abundance of snails in the river varied from 10 up to 192 ind./m2 (Table 1). Lymnaeidae snails dominated, followed by Bithyniidae snails were sub-dominants. The Shannon-Weaver index, as calculated under the gastropod population density, indicated an increase of the species diversity from 1.4-1.5 bit/ind. (upper stream) up to 1.8-1.9 bit/ind. (lower stream). The maximum abundance of snails in the lakes varied from 49 up to 400 ind./m2. (Blagodatnoye reach and Melkoye). In lakes the Shannon-Weaver index varied from 0.56 bit/ind. (Kusgan) up to 1.9 bit/ind. (Titovo; Sopatoye reach). The maximum biomass of gastropods in the river varied from 21.7 to 142.9 g/m2; or in lakes from 9.4 to 369.8 g/ m2 (Blagodatnoye reach and Melkoye). Lymnaeidae snail’s biomass were dominated by, both in the river and in the lakes [12,13]. It should be mentioned that high abundance did not always correlate with high biomass. Thus, the high abundance (192 ind./m2) of L. stagnalis corresponded to the biomass 1.26 g/ m2, which can be explained by the prevalence of young snails in the samples. Although an adult L. stagnalis can weigh 4.9 grams.
Twenty-one species of snails belonging to seven families were recorded, Lymnaeidae, Planorbidae. Bulinidae, Physidae, Bithynhdae, Succineidae, and Zonitidae. All the recorded mollusk species are common in water bodies that are characterized by slow cur rents, in stagnant (mostly perennial) and semilotic water pools; they are common species in the southern part of Western Siberia. Lymnaeidae snail’s biomass were dominated by, both in the river and in the lakes.

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Undetectable = Untransmissible: Unpacking HIV Risk and Transmission Concerns for Women Living With HIV | Lupine Publishers

Journal of Gynaecology | Lupine Publishers

 

Keywords

HIV; Community; Women; Vertical transmission

Short Communication

Figure 1:

The notion that Undetectable = Untransmissible (U=U) is revolutionizing the way people living with HIV are seen and treated around the world. No longer the harbingers of disease and death, those living with HIV who take HIV anti-retroviral therapy (ART) daily as prescribed and achieve and maintain an undetectable viral load (< 50 copies/ml) have effectively no risk of sexually transmitting the virus to an HIV-negative partner [1]. The global U=U campaign has been credited with beginning to change public perception of HIV transmissibility [2]. However, sexual transmission of HIV is only one way in which HIV is transmitted and it is women living with HIV who have to shoulder the additional burden of the risk of possibly transmitting HIV to their child either pre or post nattily. And even though the basis of the rationale behind U=U was proven almost two decades ago by proving that a woman prescribed ART and is virally suppressed prior to contraception, and remains undetectable throughout their pregnancy, there is virtually no vertical transmission of HIV from a mother to her infant [3] (Figure 1).
To explore some of the questions and concerns of women living with HIV regarding the broad application of U=U to their lives, ICASO commissioned a Community Brief on U=U for women living with HIV. Launched in September 2018 at the National AIDS Conference in Australia, this brief was written by a team of women living with HIV and was guided by a global community advisory committee, also made up by women living with HIV. Together they collected stories from over 65 women living with HIV from around the world and held two community consultations at the International AIDS Conference in Amsterdam in July 2018 to refine and test the content and construction of the brief. In particular, this global brief focused upon capturing the voices of women living with HIV and contains quotes of over 20 women from every region in the world. Their voices illuminate the intensely personal experiences of pregnancy, motherhood and infant feeding as well as some of the nuances around sexuality, access, equity and gender which exist in the lives of women living with HIV. The widespread adoption of the U=U discourse has provided an important opportunity to ensure that the sexual and reproductive rights of women living with HIV are recognized in the context of U=U and importantly, the profile of the U=U message has the potential to be a catalyst for the much-needed conversations about gender inequalities and violence, women’s*1 self-determination, access to treatment, women’s* involvement in research, body autonomy and informed choice as essential aspects in the lives of women* regardless of whether or not a woman* living with HIV is virally undetectable.
Perhaps the most contentious issue arising from the brief is the absence of quality research and evidence regarding the risk of HIV transmission via breastfeeding. There is an urgent need to recognize the social, emotional, practical and cultural challenges that women experience when it comes to the pressures, they are under to breastfeed or not with differing advice provided to women around the world often associated with access to clean water to provide infant formula in preference to breastfeeding. What the women expressed throughout the construction of the brief is a disconnect between medical evidence, breastfeeding guidelines, cultural practices and public health approaches to the risks and harms in relation to breastfeeding. What is most concerning is the fact that there is a fear on the part of women* living with HIV that they will not receive all the information on breastfeeding, nor will they receive appropriate social or medical support if they express their desire to breastfeed. This is both troubling and concerning. This prevents women* living with HIV from having the information they require to make their own informed decisions and choices that may affect the future health of their children and families.
This brief concludes with four actions that were ubiquitous across the communities of women* living with HIV that require urgent attention including;
I. The right of women* living with HIV to make informed choices about their sexual and reproductive rights, including the right to the birth control options of their choice as well as access to safe and legal abortion,
II. Better research into vertical transmission in the context of U=U,
III. Supporting and respecting women* living with HIV to make informed choices and the best decisions about infant feeding options for themselves and their children
IV. Increasing, improving and guaranteeing access to the range of HIV treatments that work best for women* living with HIV around the globe.

Optional Quote

“The U=U movement is transformative . . . so profound in its implication and impact but so simple in its concept. And women - all women everywhere - too must benefit from this concept. More than ever before, we now have within our hands the opportunity to counter both perceived and experienced stigma and really embrace the fact that when individuals know their status, link to antiretroviral therapy and become virally suppressed then life can return to normal in the fullest sense.”

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Evaluation of the Physicochemical and Thermal Properties of Folic Acid: Influence of the Energy of Consciousness Healing Treatment | Lupine Publishers

Journal of Food and Nutrition | Lupine Publishers

 

Abstract

Folic acid is vitamin B9, which is a water-soluble vitamin that plays an important role in cell growth, production of DNA and replication. This study was aimed to determine the influence of the Trivedi Effect^® Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment on the various physicochemical and thermal properties of folic acid by using the different analytical techniques. The study was done by dividing the folic acid sample into the control and treated parts; in which, no treatment was given to control, while the treated part received the Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment remotely by a renowned Biofield Energy Healer, Dahryn Trivedi. The analysis indicated that the particle sizes of the treated sample were reduced by 3.80% (d10), 5.18% (d50), 6.33% (d90), and 4.79% {D (4,3)}, respectively, which resulted in the increase in surface area by 4.60% compared with the control sample. The PXRD analysis indicated the changes in the peak intensities of the characteristic peaks of the treated sample and their corresponding crystallite sizes in the range from -45.76% to 277.50% and -87.55% to 15.88%, respectively, in comparison to the control folic acid sample.
The treated sample also showed a significant reduction in the average crystallite size by 19.37% compared with the control sample. The weight loss of the treated sample was increased during thermal degradation by 9.11% and therefore, the decreased residual mass by 36.56%, in comparison to the untreated sample. The DSC analysis of the treated sample revealed the increase in melting and degradation temperature by 10.48% and 7.32%, respectively; while the latent heat of fusion and decomposition were reduced by 2.27% and 34.35%, respectively, compared to the untreated sample. The overall study indicated that the Trivedi Effect^®- Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment has the significant impact of on the folic acid, which might be used as a novel approach for introducing some new polymorph of folic acid and thereby improving its solubility, bioavailability, and melting and degradation profile in comparison to the untreated sample. Hence, the Trivedi Effect^® could be used as a useful approach in developing the nutraceutical/pharmaceutical formulations of folic acid with improved performance and efficacy.
Keywords:Folic Acid; Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment; The Trivedi Effect^®; PXRD; Particle Size; TGA; DSC

Introduction

Folic acid is a type of vitamin B (vitamin B9) that is known for its water-solubility within the body. Its natural active form is tetrahydrofolate i.e., its fully reduced form, in which it serves as a 1-carbon donor during the purines and thymidine synthesis and in the homocysteine to methionine remethylation cycle. Folate is considered essential for normal cell growth, DNA production, and replication. Previous studies reported its use by various enzymes as a co-factor such as a thymidylate synthase and in folate homeostasis such as the reduced folate carrier, folylpolyglutamate synthase [1,2]. Folates serves an important role of a single carbon donor in various synthesis processes within the body such as the synthesis of serine from glycine, nucleotides form purine precursors, as a methyl donor to create methyl cobalamin i.e., further used in homocysteine to methionine re-methylation, and indirect use in the synthesis of transfer RNA [3].
The use of folic acid is also evident in the cell development, metabolism of various specific biochemical reactions within the body, as well as the metabolism of some specific anticonvulsant drugs. Folic acid is known for its interrelationship with vitamin B12 and its deficiency may increase the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) and hyperhomocystinemia, i.e., increased risk of cardiovascular disease and NTDs [4]. Thus, to prevent its deficiency, oral folates are given to the patients as supplements that are generally available in two forms, folic and folinic acid. Folinic acid administration seems advantageous as it bypasses the steps of deconjugation and reduction that are essential in folic acid metabolism. Folinic acid is also considered more metabolically active, thus it may boost the levels of the coenzyme forms of the vitamin in the case when folic acid has little or no impact.
The therapeutic uses of folic acid are that it could reduce the level of homocysteine in the body and therefore, reduces the occurrence of neural tube defects; protects against neoplasia in ulcerative colitis; prevents cervical dysplasia; helps in treating vitiligo; and may help in increasing the resistance of the gingiva to local irritants that reduces the inflammation. Besides, the folate deficiency may cause various neuropsychiatric diseases such as schizophrenia-like syndromes, dementia, insomnia, forgetfulness, irritability, endogenous depression, peripheral neuropathy, organic psychosis, myelopathy, and restless legs syndrome, etc. [5-8]. The physicochemical properties of any drug such as its solubility, melting point, partition coefficient, etc. play a crucial role in its ADME profile. Hence, various approaches have been used in this way to alter the physicochemical properties of a drug to enhance its efficacy and biological activities in the body [9]. In recent days, the Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment is such an approach that is used by various scientists to modify the properties of drugs in relation to improve their bioavailability [10- 13]. A human has the ability to harness energy from the universe and can transmit it to any living organism(s) or non-living object(s) around the globe.
The object or recipient always receives energy and responds in a useful way. This process is known as the Trivedi Effect^® - Biofield Energy Healing Treatment [14,15]. The concept of Biofield Energy Healing is currently used as an alternative integrative approach that is widely accepted due to its ability to improve the quality of life by correcting the root cause of the diseases [16-18]. In a similar manner, the Trivedi Effect^®- Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment has been reported for its beneficial impact in the field of antimicrobial activity [19-21], agriculture and productivity [22,23], biotechnology [24,25], nutraceuticals [26,27], cancer research [28], bone health [29], skin health [30], and for altering the properties of metals, chemicals, ceramics and polymers [31-33], etc. This study was aimed to establish the impact of the Trivedi Effect^® on the physicochemical and thermal properties of folic acid with the help of various analytical techniques.

Materials and Methods

Chemicals and Reagents

The primary test sample folic acid was purchased from Alfa Aesar, USA and remaining chemicals were purchased in India.

Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment Strategies

The folic acid sample used in the study was first divided into two parts and termed as the control and Biofield Energy Treated sample based on the treatment. The control sample did not receive the Biofield Energy Treatment, but the sample was treated with a “sham” healer. The sham healer did not have any knowledge about the Biofield Energy Treatment. Besides, the treated sample was received the Trivedi Effect^®-Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment by the renowned Biofield Energy Healer, Dahryn Trivedi, USA, with her unique energy transmission process under standard laboratory conditions for 3 minutes. After the treatment, both the samples were kept in sealed conditions and characterized using sophisticated analytical techniques.

Characterization

The particle size analysis (PSA) was performed using Malvern Mastersizer 2000, from the UK using the wet method [34,35]. The powder x-ray diffraction (PXRD) analysis of folic acid powder sample was performed with the help of Rigaku MiniFlex-II Desktop X-ray diffractometer (Japan) [36,37]. The average crystallite size of the folic acid samples was calculated from XRD data using the Scherrer’s formula (1)
Where G is the crystallite size in nm, k is the equipment constant, λ is the radiation wavelength, β is the full-width at half maximum, and θ is the Bragg angle [38].
The thermal gravimetric analysis/differential thermogravimetric analysis TGA/DTG thermograms of folic acid were obtained with the help of TGA Q50 TA instruments. Similarly, the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis of folic acid was performed with the help of DSC Q200, TA instruments [39]. The % change of the treated folic acid was calculated compared with the control sample using the following equation 2:

Results and Discussion

Particle Size Analysis (PSA)

The particle size analysis of the treated sample was done and compared with the results of the control sample (Table 1) to analyse the impact of the Biofield Energy Treatment on the particle size distribution of the folic acid. The analysis indicated the reduction in the particle size values of the treated sample by 3.80%, 5.18%, 6.33%, and 4.79% at d10, d50, d90, and D (4, 3), respectively, as compared to the control sample.
The reduced particle size after the Biofield Energy Treatment of the folic acid sample resulted in the increased surface area as the SSA of the treated sample was found to be 1.82m²/g that is increased by 4.60% in comparison to the control sample (1.74m²/g). The particle size distribution of any drug plays a vital role in its performance and efficacy within the body by directly affecting its solubility and bioavailability [9,40]. The scientists already have been using the approach of reducing the particle size of the drug in increasing the effective surface area and thereby the dissolution and solubility of the drug [41]. Thus, it is suggested that the treated folic acid sample might show better solubility, dissolution, and bioavailability profile when used in formulation development as compared to the untreated sample.

Figure 1: PXRD diffractograms of the control and treated folic acid.

Table 1: Particle size distribution of the control and treated folic acid.
d₁₀, d₅₀, and d₉₀: diameter of the particles corresponding to 10%, 50%, and 90% of the cumulative distribution, D (4,3): the average mass-volume diameter, and SSA: the specific surface area.

The PXRD studies of the control and treated samples were done and the corresponding diffractograms are given in Figure 1. The diffractogram’s analysis indicated the crystalline nature of both the samples due to the presence of sharp and intense peaks in the given figure (Figure 1). The further analysis (Table 2) helps in determining any changes between the control and treated sample in terms of the Bragg’s angles of the peaks, their relative peak intensities and corresponding crystallite sizes of the characteristic peaks. The study indicated the significant changes in the Bragg’s angles of the peaks of the treated sample in comparison to the characteristic peaks present in the diffractogram of the control sample. Also, the treated folic acid sample showed changes in the relative peak intensities and corresponding crystallite sizes in the range from -45.76% to 277.50% and -87.55% to 15.88%, respectively, as compared to the control sample.
Besides, the average crystallite size of the treated folic acid (138.25nm) also showed major alteration as it was significantly decreased by 19.37% in comparison to the control sample (171.46nm). The remarkable changes in the crystalline structure and crystal morphology of drugs might occur due to the possible formation of a novel polymorphic form of folic acid [42,43] after the Biofield Energy Treatment. This presumption could be done based on the analysis that the peak intensities and crystallite sizes of the treated folic acid sample were altered after the Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment in comparison to the untreated sample. Moreover, the novel polymorphic form of the compound may show better bioavailability and drug efficacy profile [44]; thus, the treated folic acid might be more bioavailable and effective as compared to the untreated sample.

Figure 2: TGA thermograms of the control and treated folic acid.

Table 2: PXRD data for the control and treated folic acid.

Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA)/ Differential Thermogravimetric Analysis (DTG)

The thermal stability analysis of the control and treated folic acid samples was done with the help of TGA/DTG technique. The TGA thermograms of the control and treated samples are given in Figure 2. Further analysis was done to analyse the differences between the degradation profile of the control and the treated sample (Table 3). It revealed that the treated sample showed increased weight loss by 9.11% during the thermal degradation in comparison to the control sample. Such an increase in the weight loss signifies the decrease in the residue weight of the treated sample remaining after the degradation by 36.56%, compared to the control sample. Thus, it showed that the treated folic acid sample showed increased thermal degradation, compared to the control sample.

Figure 3: DTG thermograms of the control and treated folic acid.

Table 3: TGA/DTG data of the control and treated samples of folic acid.
T_max = the temperature at which maximum weight loss takes place in TG or peak temperature in DTG.

The DTG analysis of both the samples, i.e., the control and treated folic acid samples showed four peaks in the DTG thermograms (Figure 3), that represented the temperature at which maximum thermal degradation has taken place. The analysis revealed that the maximum thermal degradation temperatures (T_max) corresponding to 1st and 2nd peak in the treated sample was reduced by 0.75% and 2.07%, respectively; while it was increased by 3.71% and 1.78% for the 3rd and 4th peaks, respectively as compared to the control sample. Hence, it could be suggested that the thermal degradation of the treated sample was reduced at higher temperatures after the Biofield Energy Treatment in comparison to the control folic acid sample. Thus, the overall analysis indicated the alterations in the thermal degradation profile of the treated sample in comparison to the untreated sample.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Analysis

The DSC analysis of both the samples i.e., the control and treated folic acid sample helps in studying and analysing the differences in their thermal behaviour such as melting and crystallization temperature etc. [45]. The previous studies reported that when folic acid was heated, the “Glu” moiety will first break down at ~180°C, followed by the degradation of pterin and PABA moieties. Afterward, when the sample was further heated, it loses the amide and acid functionalities at ~195°C, and then the crystalline folic acid degraded above 200°C in the form of the amorphous form [46]. The DSC analysis of both the samples indicated the presence of two peaks in their respective DSC thermograms (Figure 4). The first peak observed in the thermograms of both the samples i.e., the control and treated sample was endothermic in nature and denote the melting of the folic acid samples. The analysis indicated the significant increase in the melting temperature of the treated sample by 10.48%, while the corresponding Δ_Hfusion was reduced by 2.27% as compared to the control sample (Table 4).
Moreover, the second peak observed in the thermograms of both the samples is exothermic in nature that might denote the sample degradation on further heating. It was observed that the treated sample showed a significant increase in the degradation temperature by 7.32% compared with the control folic acid sample; however, the ΔHdegradation was significantly reduced by 34.35% compared to the control sample (Table 4). The DSC analysis indicated the improved stability of the treated folic acid sample during heating, which might happen as a result of some possible alterations in the crystallization structure [47] after the Biofield Energy Treatment. Hence, it could be suggested that the treated folic acid sample might be more thermally stable compared with the untreated sample.

Figure 4: DSC thermograms of the control and treated folic acid.

Table 4: Comparison of DSC data between the control and treated folic acid.
Δ_H: Latent heat of fusion

Conclusions

The Trivedi Effect^®-Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment has been known previously for its significant effect on the properties of various compounds. This study also concluded the impact of the Biofield Energy Treatment on the physicochemical and thermal properties of the folic acid sample. It revealed the remarkable alterations in the particle size distribution of the treated sample i.e., the reduced particle size at d10, d50, d90, and D (4,3) by 3.80%, 5.18%, 6.33%, and 4.79%, respectively in comparison to the particle sizes of the control sample. Furthermore, the treated folic acid sample showed an increased specific surface area by 4.60% due to the reduced particle sizes compared with the untreated sample. The PXRD studies indicated major changes in the relative intensities of the characteristic peaks of the treated sample’s diffractogram along with the corresponding crystallite sizes in the range from -45.76% to 277.50% and -87.55% to 15.88%, respectively, compared with the untreated sample.

Besides, the Biofield Energy Treatment might also alter the average crystallite size of the treated sample that was significantly reduced by 19.37% as compared to the control sample. The TGA analysis of the treated folic acid sample indicated the increased weight loss during the thermal degradation by 9.11%; therefore, the residue weight remaining after the degradation was observed to be decreased by 36.56%, compared to the untreated sample. The DSC analysis suggested the significant increase in the melting point and degradation temperature of the treated sample as it was observed to be increased by 10.48% and 7.32%, respectively, compared to the control sample. However, the enthalpy changes i.e., ΔHfusion and ΔHdegradation was reduced by 2.27% and 34.35%, respectively compared with the enthalpy changes of the control sample during the process.
The overall study showed that the Trivedi Effect^®- Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment might be used as a new approach that might form a novel polymorphic form of the folic acid with improved dissolution, solubility, and bioavailability along with increased thermal stability as compared to the untreated sample. Thus, the Trivedi Effect^® Treated folic acid could be presumed as more beneficial in the pharmaceutical/nutraceutical preparations for treating and preventing various disorders such as, schizophrenia-like syndromes, dementia, insomnia, forgetfulness, irritability, endogenous depression, peripheral neuropathy, organic psychosis, myelopathy, and restless legs syndrome, eye disease age-related macular degeneration (AMD), allergic diseases, sleep problems, osteoporosis, etc.

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